Sejarah Dunia

World History

5500 BC Egyptians Weave Flax Into Fabric - Flax threads were woven together to create fabric for the first time in Egypt in 5500.

4400 BC Horses Domesticated - 4400 BC is the first time there is evidence of the domestication of horses. The domestication of horses provided an important new power of transportation and a new means of conducting warfare.

3500 BC Sumerians Develop A Phonetic Alphabet - The Sumerians were the first group to develop a written alphabet. Archeologists have discovered thousands of clay tablets with Sumerian writing cauneform on them. Most of the surviving records are of business transactions. 
The Sumerian writing evolved from an alphabet that was primarly pictographic( picture images) to one that became phonetic.

3500 BC Bronze Made -About 3500 Bronze was made for the first time. Copper was combined with tin, which created 
a new metal that could be used in many tools.

3250 BC Paper Made Of Papyrus Reed - The first known paper was produced in Egypt. The central pulp of papyrus reed was split, dried and glued together.

3200 BC Hieroglyphic Writing - The Egyptians developed a system of writing known as Hieroglyphics in 3200 BC. Hieroglyphics told the storys with pictographs.

3200 BC Sumerian Civilization Begins- Around 3200 BC, a system of city-states developed along the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. The Sumerians developed a loose confederation of the city-states. The states often fought against one another.

3050 BC First Medical Treatise - The oldest known medical text has been dated to about 3050 BC. It is known as the Edwin Smith Papyrus.

3000 BC First Chariots - The first known use of wheels took place in Sumer by 3000 BC. The wheels were made of wood and were very heavy. They were used both for transport and on early chariots.

3000 BC Egypt's First Dynasty - King Menes founded the first dynasty of Egypt. Menes united Egypt into a single Kingdom, bringing together what had been, until then, two separate Kingdoms: the Lower and the Upper. Menes built a new capital for Egypt at Memphis, in the lower Nile delta

2980 BC Egypt's Third Dynasty - The Third Dynasty was founded by Pharaoh Djoser. His greatest accomplishment, with the help of his architect Imohotep, was the building of the first pyramids. Imhotep was venerated by later generations of Egyptians not only as an architect, but as a magician, astronomer and the father of medicine.   

2900 BC The Great Pyramids Built - The Great Pyramid of Cheops at Giza was built around 2900 BC. It took 4,000 stonemasons and as many as 100,000 laborers to build the pyramid. The pyramid rose to a height of over 481 feet.

2900 BC Egypt's 4th Dynasty - The Fourth Dynasty was founded by the Pharaoh Snefru. He built the Pyramid at Dahshur. Snefru extended the reach of Egypt by developing trading relations with lands as far away as Lebanon. Snefru's son Khufu (in Greek known as Cheops) and his son Khaefre (Chepren) were the builders of the Great Pyramids of Giza.   

2900 BC Civilization Begins Around Indus Valley - Indian Civilization began in the Indus Valley. Most of the peoples of the Harappan civilization lived either near or in the city of Harappa or Mohenjo-Daro. The Harappan civilization was a highly urbanized culture.
   
2700 BC Early Minoan Culture Begins - One of the earliest known civilizations came into existence on the island of Crete - that of the Minoans. By 2700 B.C., the Minoans began to organize themselves into towns and establish a form of government. During this period, the Minoans used iron for the first time.

2350 - 2180 BC Dynasty VI Of Egypt - During the course of the Sixth Dynasty, the powers of the Pharaoh decreased. The growing power of the nobility limited the absolute power of the Egyptian Kings. Piopi and Piopi II were among the longest reigning Pharaohs of Egypt.
   
2340 BC Sargon King of Akkad- Sargon the Great rose from the service of the King of Kish. Sargon built Akkad as the new seat of government. Sargon accomplished what no Sumerian had done before: he unified all of the Sumerian cities in one centrally organized empire. Sargon also expanded the empire to include Persia and Syria, thus ruling from 'sea to sea'. The Empire was further extended by his sons. Under his grandson Narmsin, the empire reached its zenith. The last of Sargon dynasty, Sharkalisharri, ruled until 2219 B.C., when Akkad fell to the Guti.   

2205 - 1767 BC Hsia Dynasty - Civilization in China is said to have begun with the founding of the Hsia dynasty. Knowledge of the Hsia is limited mostly to a list of the seventeen kings of the dynasty.   

2150 BC Mentuhotep II Reunifies Egypt - After a period of strife between the nobles and the Kings known as the First Intermediate Period, King Menthuotep reunited the Kingdom under a new dynasty. During this time, the concept of life after death was extended to everyone, not just royalty.

2060 BC Third Dynasty Of Ur Founded (Sumeria)- Urnammu of Ur seized power from Utukhegal and founded a new Sumerian dynasty. Under his son, Shulgi, the empire of Ur extended as far as Anatolia. Like his Sumerian forbearers, Shulgi declared himself to be a god. During this period, an extensive building campaign was undertaken by the Empire. It was also a golden period for Sumerian literature. In about 1965 B.C., the Amorites overran Sumer and Akkad. Finally, Ur was attacked and destroyed, thereby ending the golden age.   
Images of UR

2000 BC Great Stone Palaces At Knossos Built- The stone palaces at Knossus and Malia were built on Crete at around 2000 BC. The palaces were designed to help keep the temperature as cool as possible. They also contained indoor plumbing.

2000 BC Babylonia Develop Mathematic System- The Babylonians developed a mathematical system based on units of 60. They also divided a circle into a 360 units.   

1900 BC Cotton Used For The First Time - Beginning around 1900 BC the Harappans became the first to grow and wove cotten into fabric.
   
1900 BC Myceneans Arrive In Greece- Around 1900 B.C., the Mycenaeans arrived from the North and gained control of Greece. This was the period of Greek history written about by Homer, and known as the Heroic Period- or Mycenaean Age.   

1900 BC Middle Minoan Culture Begins - Minoan culture reached its high point during this period. Great palaces were built at Knossos, Phaistos and Mallia. There was a central government. Minoans began trading with other peoples both around the Aegean and as far away as Egypt. There is some evidence that the Minoans successfully collected tribute from many surrounding peoples.   

1991 -1786 BC Amenemhet I Founded the Middle Kingdom. He reduced the power of the nobles and established a strong central government. The new capital of Egypt became Lisht. During this period, Egyptian art and literature flourished. The practice of co-regency was introduced during this era. The Middle Kingdom reached the pinnacle of its might under Amenemehet III.

1766 BC Shang Dynasty - The Shang dynasty replaced the Xia in 1766. The 30 kings of Shang dynasty ruled a largely agricultural society that was established in the Yellow River Plain from the mountains of Shansi to the Shangtung massif. The government of the Shang dynasty was highly centralized, with a king and royal bureaucracy.

1792 BC Hammurabi Conquers Mesopotamia- Hammurabi extended the power of Babylon over all of Mesopotamia. He united all Mesopotamia marking the onset of one of the greatest periods in Babylonian history. Hammurabi issued his Code, the first comprehensive legal code ever created.

1720 - 1570 BC Hyskos Dynasties XV& XVI Rule Egypt- Sensing the declining power of the native Egyptian dynasties, the Hyksos invaded Egypt from Syria Palestine. The Hyksos established their capital at Avaris and ruled as if they were Egyptian Pharaohs. But the Hyksos did introduce new ideas into Egypt. They taught the Egyptians how to make bronze and cast the material for tools and weapons. They also brought with them the horse-drawn chariot and introduced the composite bow into the Egyptian arsenal.

1500 BC Harappan Civilization Taken Over By Aryans -The Harappan Civilization began to rapidly decline sometime before 1500 B.C. The causes are not known with certainty, but are believed to have included a changing climate that brought with it severe drought. The weakened Harrappans were quickly taken over by northern invaders known as Aryans.

1595 BC Hittites Lay Waste To Babylonia - The Hittites, under the command of King Mursilis, combined with the Kassites to attack Babylonia. Together they defeated the Babylonian army. The Hittites plundered the wealth of Babylonia and returned to Anatolia, leaving the Kassites in control of Babylonia.

1580 BC New Kingdom Of Egypt - The New Kingdom was established by the Pharaoh Ahmose. He thrust the Hyksos out of the Nile Delta in 1570. The period of the New Kingdom is best known as the time during which Egypt created an empire. Egyptian wealth reached unparalleled heights.

1540 BC Nubians Defeated By Egyptians- One of the first acts of the Eighteenth Dynasty under Ahmose was the subjugation of Nubia. The Egyptians quickly subdued the Nubians and assimilated them into the Empire.

1450 BC Greeks Conquer Minoans- After trading with the Minoans for long period of time, the Mycenaeans conquered them in about 1450 B.C. The Mycenaeans destroyed the great palace at Knossos.
  
1483 BC Battle Of Meggido - In 1483 B.C., Tutmosis launched a war of conquest against Syria- Palestine. The war culminated at Meggido in Northern Israel. There the Egyptians decisively defeated their opponents and became the dominant force in the area.

1400 BC Iron Age In Near East - The production of iron was invented in Armenia. The people were subjects of the Hittites. The use of iron by the Hittites gave them a military advantage, and kept the secret of how to make iron a secret. The secret: raising the temperature of the iron in the forge. After the fall of the Assyrian Empire iron manufacturing was widely dispersed throughout the Middle East.  

1375 -1360 BC Akhenaten IV Pharaoh - In 1379, Akhenaten IV became Pharaoh. The Empire had reached the very highest levels of prosperity. But under Akhentaten IV, the Empire began to dissolve. Revolts broke out in Phoenicia and Palestine. The Hittites absorbed part of the Empire in Syria. Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti pursued a new religion focusing on a belief in one god: the sun. This religion was not popular with the people, and after Akhenaten's death, his religious reforms were renounced.

1288 BC Rameses II Fights The Hittites- Rameses II fought to regain control of the territory seized by the Hittites. Rameses led his men to Kadesh, where a great battle was fought. Though the Egyptians claimed to have won a major victory there, the magnitude of that victory is unclear. What is known, however, is that after the battle the Egyptians reached a favorable agreement with the Hittites.

1240 BC Philistines Established -The Philistines established themselves in the coastal plain of present-day Israel. The Philistines were nomadic warriors who may have originally come from Crete. They established five city-states: Ashdod, Ashquelon, Ekron, Gath and Gaza.
  
1240 BC Israelites Established- The Israelites, after escaping from Egypt, established themselves in Canaan. The Israelites organized into 12 tribes and took control of the land through a combination of military victories and political assimilation.  

1200 BC Ramses III- Rameses III founded the Twentieth Dynasty. His capital was Tanis. Rameses rallied the Egyptians to fight invaders from the Mediterranean. The attacking forces were halted on land, and their fleet was allowed to enter the Delta where they became entangled in a giant net. The sailors were massacred and thus Rameses successfully held the Empire together. Under his successors, the Empire slowly declined.

1184 BC Troy Captured- The Greeks united under the command of Agamemnon to attack Troy on Asia minor. The Trojans were besieged for a lengthy period before submitting to the Greeks.

1140 BC Second Babylonian Empire Started- After an extended period of domination by the Kassites, a native dynasty arose in Babylon. Heading the new dynasty was Nebuchadrezzar (not related to the Nebuchadnezzar who conquered Jerusalem).
  
1100 BC Hallstatt Culture- Iron was used for the first time in Austria. From Austria the use of iron spread throughout Europe. The first part of the Iron Age in Europe was known as the Hallstatt Period.

1027 BC Shang Dynasty Vassal Tribe, "Chou", Defeats Shang Dynasty - The tribe of Chou, under the leadership of Wu Wang defeated the Shang dynasty in 1027 BC. They established the Chou dynasty which became the longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history. The Chou continued the central administration of the Shang. They included individual principalities called 'guo', the Chinese word for states.

1090 BC Nubia Becomes Independant- With the breakup of the New Kingdom, Nubia once again become independent of Egypt. Nubia, otherwise known as the Kingdom of Kush, became a major trading center.

1090 BC New Kingdom Dissolves - The end of the New Kingdom coincided with the end of dynasty of the Ramesids. Egypt entered a long period of turmoil and foreign conflict.

1070 BC Collapse of Assyria- The Assyrian Empire collapsed under the assault of Aramaeans and Babylonians. The Assyrian Empire reasserted itself under the reign of Assurdan II.  

1010 BC King Saul- Saul, the first king of the Israelites, was killed by the Philistines at the Battle of Mount Gilboa. Saul was succeeded by King David.

900 BC Etruria- It is most likely that the Etruscans arrived in Italy from Asia Minor as a consequence of the break-up of the Hittite Empire. The Etruscans came to the area north of the Tiber River, taking control, and forming a loosely connected league of cities.

995 BC King David Captures Jerusalem- King David captured the Jebusite city of Jerusalem. Since Jerusalem did not belong to any single tribe, David wisely made the city his national capital. Under David's rule, the Kingdom of Israel reached its maximum size absorbing many of its neighbors.

945- 730 BC Libyans Rule Egypt- In about 945 B.C., Libyan settlers in Egypt managed to seize control under the leadership of Shishak, who founded the Twenty-Second Dynasty. During Shishak's reign, the Egyptians attacked the Kingdom of Israel, and sacked Jerusalem. In spite of this triumph, the dynasty was racked by dissension.

922 BC King Solomon - King Solomon reigned from 961- 922 B.C. During his reign, he consolidated the Kingdom of his father, David. Solomon instituted new methods of government and entered into a series of alliances to ensure that his Kingdom would remain at peace.

Upon the death of Solomon, his son Rehoboam came to the throne. He was not accepted by many of the tribes of Israel, and they split off naming Jerboam King of Israel. Rehoboam remained King of Judah, the area to the south.

840 BC Vannic Kingdom - The Vannic Kingdom was founded by Sardur I . The Kingdom included parts of what are Turkey, Russian and Iran today. It was able to develop in the shadow of the Assyrian Empire.

814 BC Cathrage Founded- In 814 B.C., Phoenicians founded a colony at Carthage. The colony would soon overshadow the homeland and become an important world power in its own right.

780 - 560 BC Greek Colonies Established- During this period, the Greeks established a series of colonies on Asia Minor. Colonies served as an important safety valve' since there was not enough arable land in Greece proper to supply food for an expanding population.

771 BC Chou Capital At Hao Destroyed- The Chou capital at Hao was destroyed by barbarians who came from the north. Their king, Yu, was murdered. The Chous moved their capital to Loyang. The power of the Chou monarchy was limited however. Anarchy was frequently more the rule than the exception.

753 BC Rome Founded- According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 B.C. Its traditional founder was Romulus, said to be the son of a princess of Alba Longa. In truth, we know little about the actual founding of the city. The first settlement in Rome most likely took place on Palatine Hill near the Tiber River.

736 - 716 BC First Messenian War- One of the first acts of the Eighteenth Dynasty under Ahmose was the subjugation of Nubia. The Egyptians quickly subdued the Nubians and assimilated them into the Empire.

730 BC Egyptian Dynasty XXV Founded- In 730 B.C., the Kushite ruler Piankhi sailed down the Nile and took control of Egypt. Piankhi established the 25th Dynasty. During this time, many of the old temples of Egypt were renewed.

722 BC Samaria Falls- After a three-year siege, Samaria (the capital of Israel) fell to the Assyrians. It is said that the Assyrian took 20,000 Israelites into slavery. Thus ended the Kingdom of Israel.

668 BC Ashurbanipal King Of Assyria Conquers Egypt- In the later years of the 25th dynasty, the Egyptians opposed the Assyrians in Palestine. This provoked an Assyrian reaction which included the successful invasion of Egypt. In 663 B.C., Psannetucgys --a member of the house of Sais -- drove the Assyrians out of Egypt with the help of Lydian troops to establish the 26th dynasty. This was the last period of independent Egyptian sovereignty until modern times.

660 BC Empire Of Japan Established - According to legend, Jimmu Tenno invaded Japan's main island Honshu. There he established himself as Japan's first emperor. He founded the Yamato family and is believed to be a direct ancestor of Japan's current emperor

650 - 630 BC Second Messenian War- The Messinians, led by Aristomenes, revolted against Sparta. It took the Spartans twenty years to fully subdue the rebellion. As a result of the difficulties encountered during the rebellion, Sparta reorganized itself into a military state.
  
650 BC Assyrians Destroy Babylon -An attempted revolt against the Assyrians by the Babylonians resulted in the destruction of Babylon by the Assyrians.
  
626 BC Nabopolasser Founds Chaldean Empire- The Chaldeans who had dominated Babylonia during the Assyrian period, took control of Babylon and established a new dynasty. The head of the dynasty was Nabopolassar, whose first task was the destruction of the Assyrians.

621 BC Greek Lawgiver Draco -Athens was ruled by an oligarchy whose actions were considered severe and arbitrary. A nobleman, Draco, was appointed to create a code of laws. He produced a constitution for Athenian society with a major focus on crime and punishment. It called for death as punishment for all crimes. It did however, state that the power of the state to carry out the code originated from the people.

612 BC Ninveh Captured Assyrian Empire Ends- Nineveh, the capital of Babylonia, was captured by a coalition of armies. The seizure of Nineveh was followed by the capture of Harran in 610 B.C. This brought to an end the Assyrian Empire.

499 BC Work On Grand Canal- The Chinese began work on the Grand Canal under the Eastern Chou dynasty. The goal of the canal was to connect the Yellow and Yangtse River. Work and improvements on the canal continued for 2,000 years.
  
499 BC Greek City States Revolts- The Greek city states known as the Ionians in Asian Minor revolted against Persian rule. Their leader was Aristagoras of Miletus. The Athenians sent 20 ships to help them.  

494 BC Darius Navy Defeats Greeks Off Lade- Darius' naval forces were able to defeat the Greek fleet off the island of Lade. With the sea under his control, Darius had no problems in seizing and sacking Miletus. Darius put down the revolt and took control of Ionia.

490 BC Battle Of Marathon - The Army of Athens and its allies met the Persians on the Plains of Marathon about 22 miles from Athens. The Greeks charged the Persian lines. Both sides fought hard, but it was the Greeks who were able to break the Persian lines. The Persians were forced to withdraw to their boats. The complete Greek victory at Marathon ended the immediate Persian threat.

483 BC Buddha - In 483 B.C. Gautama Buddha died. He was the founder of Buddhism. Shortly after his death, 500 disciples met to further refine his doctrine and code of discipline.

483 BC Confucius- At the age of 56, the Chinese minister of Lu Long Fuzi resigned. He spent the last 12 years of his life wandering China teaching morality, family values and statecraft. Lu Long became known as Confucius and, to this day, remains the most revered Chinese philosopher.

480 BC Second Invasion Of Greece- Xerxes who seceded Darius vowed to revenge his father's defeat by renewing the attacks on Greece. He led an invasion force of 150,000 soldiers and 700 naval ships. The Greeks fought a delaying battle at the Thermopylae Pass. Nine thousand Greeks under Spartan command held the pass for two days. The Persians managed to outflank the Greeks, however. Most of the Greek forces withdrew, but 300 Spartans fought to the death. Athenians then abandoned their city which the Persians promptly sacked.The Greek fleet was bottled up, in the Saronic Gulf. The Persians then tried to storm the Gulf, but became tangled as they entered the straits leading to the gulf and were destroyed.
Xerxes then withdrew. The next year at the Battle of Plataea the Greeks decisively defeated the Persians and ended the Persian threat.

470 BC Naxos Tries To Leave Delphian League- According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 B.C. Its traditional founder was Romulus, said to be the son of a princess of Alba Longa. In truth, we know little about the actual founding of the city. The first settlement in Rome most likely took place on Palatine Hill near the Tiber River.

464 BC Third Messenian War- One of the first acts of the Eighteenth Dynasty under Ahmose was the subjugation of Nubia. The Egyptians quickly subdued the Nubians and assimilated them into the Empire.  

460 BC Age of Pericles- The Age of Pericles, lasted from 461 B.C. (when Pericles as a young aristocrat became the dominant politician in Athens) until 429 B.C. This was a period of expanding democracy at home and increased imperialism abroad. .

431 - 404 BC Peloponnesian War- For Sparta and its allies, the growing Athenian power aroused fear and suspicion. A series of disputes finally led to the outbreak of war between Athens and Sparta. Sparta hoped to defeat the Athenians in open battle. The Athenians, on the other hand, relied on their navy. Their forces withdrew behind the city walls, which Sparta besieged. Despite a plague that killed one-third of Athenians (including Pericles) the Athenians fought on. In 415 B.C., the Athenians attempted to capture Sicily. The attack was repulsed and the Athenians were defeated outside the city of Syracuse. All their soldiers were killed or sold into slavery. In 405 B.C., the Athenian fleet was destroyed at Aegospotami. In 404 B.C., the Spartans finally captured Athens and brought the war to an end.

429 BC Hippocrates- Hippocrates was spared death from a plague that killed between 1/3 and 2/3d's of the population of Athens. Hipocrates was the first to say that disease was not miraculous, or a punishiment from the gods. Hippocrates is best known for the Hippocratic Oath that every physician swears to.

401 BC Battle Of Cunaxa- After a three-year siege, Samaria (the capital of Israel) fell to the Assyrians. It is said that the Assyrian took 20,000 Israelites into slavery. Thus ended the Kingdom of Israel.

399 BC Hsiung Nu-(Huns) Dominate Mongoliat- Starting in 399 B.C., the Hsuing Nu (known as the Huns) began to dominate the other tribes in Mongolia. Over a process that took nearly 200 years, they came to dominate the Northern border of China.  

395 - 387 BC Corinthian War - With the help of the Persians, Athens and other Greek city-states organized to challenge Sparta once again. In the course of the war, both sides won victories, but Sparta finally negotiated a peace with the Persians which was known as the 'King's Peace' which ended the war.

370 BC 1st Roman Roads Built- The Romans built their first road. The road ran from Rome to the Alban Hills, and was used primarily to carry military traffic.  
371 BC Battle At Leuctra -Sparta was defeated at the Battle of Leuctra by Epaeminondas of Thebes. This defeat shattered the myth of Spartan invincibility and ended Sparta's hegemony over Greece.
  
359 BC Philip II Regent Of Macedonia- Philip II became Regent of Macedonia in 359 B.C. He reorganized the army and made it one of the strongest in Greece. He was soon drawn into the quarrels between the various Greek city-states.  
346 BC Peace Of Philocrates -Philip forced Athens to accept a peace treaty with Macedonia, one which was very favorable to Macedonia. This marked the beginning of the end of Greek independence.  

334 BC Alexander The Great- Battle Of Granicus- Alexander the Great led a Greek army of 35,000 soldiers into battle against the Persian army led by Darius III at Granicus. The Persian army of 40,000 waited across the river of Granicus for the Macedonians who streamed across. The battle was hard-fought but Alexander's troops gained the upper hand, and killed or captured half of the Persian army which was forced to retreat.

334 BC Battle Of Issus- In the Battle at Issus, Macedonian forces under Alexander, met a Persian army, numbering nearly 500,000 men, under the command of Darius lll. Alexander attacked the Persian infantry in the center of the lines and achieved an overwhelming victory, decimating the Persian forces.
  
334 BC Battle Of Gaugamela- Darius III and the Persian Empire made a final stand in October 331 B.C. at Gaugamela near Arbela in the heart of Assyria. Nearly 1 million men faced an army of 50,000 Macedonians under Alexander. Alexander obtained excellent intelligence on the disposition of Persian forces and was able to attack the Persians, disrupting their lines which resulted in a general Persian retreat.
Darius fled the battlefield, was pursued and was eventually assassinated in Bactaria. The Persian empire came to an end.  

321 BC Hindu Mauryan Dynasty- In 321 B.C., the Maurya Dynasty was founded in India. The Maurya overthrew Nanda, ruler of the Maganedha Kingdom of the Ganges River Valley.  

321 BC Ptolemy- Ptolemy, ruler of Egypt, defeated Antigonus at the battle of Gaza. Ptolemy was supported by Seleucus, who went on to reconquer Babylonia.

301 BC Battle Of Ipsus- Antigonus attempted to reunite Alexander's empire under his control. He invaded Egypt, but his forces and those of his son Demetrius were defeated.  

300 BC Euclid Publishes Elements-The Greek mathmatician Euclid living in Alexandria, published a 13 volume work called Elements. It laid out for the first time the principals of geometry.

289 BC Ptolemy Builds First Light House- Ptolmey II the King of Egypt built a lighthouse on an island on the mouth of the Nile. The lighthouse was 400 feet high and could be seen from 40 miles away.
  
274 - 236 BC Asoka's Empire- Asoka became the emperor of the Mauryan Empire of India. He was a devout convert to Buddhism and ruled the empire according to Buddhist law. Asoka conquered the Kalinga and thus extending his control to over two-thirds of the Indian peninsula.  

265 - 241 BC First Punic War - The first Punic War developed as a result of a dispute over the Sicilian city of Messina. Rome sent an army to Sicily, which Carthage held to be part of its sphere of influence. For the first time, Rome was forced to raise a navy. After a protracted and difficult conflict, during which both sides won and lost battles, the Romans defeated the Carthaginian navy off the coast of Sicily. Carthage was forced to sue for peace. It renounced all claims to Sicily and agreed to pay an indemnity to Rome.

245 BC Third Syrian War- The Third Syrian War started when Ptolemy III's sister, (Antiochus II Theo current wife) was killed by his former wife. Ptolemy responded by invading the Seleucid Empire, advancing all the way to Bactria. He captured Babylon and Susa along the way, amassing much spoils. A revolt at home forced Ptolemy to return to Egypt.  

240 BC Archemides Shows Value Of Pi- Archemides the Greek mathmatician was the first to determine the value of pi. He also successfully calculated the area of a circle.

238 BC Rome Annexes Sardinia And Corsica- The Romans annexed Sardinia and Corsica during a revolt against Carthage. Thus Roman rule was extended even farther.
  
230 BC Aritstarchus Of Samos - Aristarchus died in 230 BC. He caluculated the size of the earth, sun and the moon. He showed that the earth orbited the sun and the moon orbited the earth.  

218 - 201 BC 2nd Punic War- Hannibal - After Carthage was defeated in the first Punic War, it recovered and rebuilt its army. When Rome provoked Carthage by encouraging a rebellion in one of its colonies -- Spain -- Carthage struck back. Led by its greatest general Hannibal, Carthage was determined to bring war to Rome. Hannibal crossed the Alps with between 30,000 and 40,000 men, 6,000 horses and even elephants. Hannibal defeated the Romans in a battle at Cannae. His armies were free to roam Italy at will. Hannibal's forces, however, were not strong enough to lay siege to any city, including Rome.
Rome responded by pushing the Carthaginians out of Spain, transforming it into another Roman province.
Finally, Rome took the war to Carthage, prompting Hannibal's recall from Italy. The Romans defeated Hannibal at the Battle of Zama in 202 B.C.; the next year a peace treaty was signed.

221 BC Great Wall Of China Built- The Great Wall of China was begun in 221 BC by Shih Huang Ti. The wall was built along 1,200 miles of China's northern border. It was between 20-50 feet high and 18-30 feet wide.  

217 BC 4th Syrian War- The Fourth Syrian War come to an end at the Battle of Rafiah. Ptolemy IV of Egypt defeats Antiochus III, who had earlier captured Egyptian territory in Syria. The war ended with Ptolemy getting back territory lost earlier in the war, but without any other substantial changes.  

216 BC 1st Macedonian War- The first Macedonian War broke out when Philip V of Macedonia invaded Illyria. The Romans made use of their superior control of the seas to thwart the Macedonians.

215 BC Specific Gravity Discovered- Archimedes the Greek mathmetician discovered the principles of specific gravity. The principle states that a body submersed in a liquid, the liquid loses the same weight as the weight of the body submersed. This was used by the Greeks to determine the purity of gold..

198 BC Antiochus III, The Great Ends Fifth Syrian War-The Fifth Syrian War ended at the Battle of Banyais, between Antiochus II (King of the Seleucid Empire) and Ptolemy V of Egypt. The Egyptians were decisively defeated by Antiochus' forces, and were forced to cede all their territory -- with the exception of the Sinai Desert -- to the Seleucids.
  
197 BC 2nd Macedonian War Ends- The Romans became involved in the second Macedonian War after an appeal by Athens and the other Greek city-states against Philip and Antiochus of Syria. Rome defeated Philip at the Battle of Cynocephalae and the Greeks were forced to surrender. Under terms of the agreement, the Greeks were left nominally independent.

195 BC Kao Tsu- 1st Han Emperor Dies- Kao Tsu, first emperor of the Han dynasty, died in 195 B.C. During his reign, he expanded the Empire pushing the Huns out of China and occupying inner Mongolia. Han opened the silk route to Syria and founded the Chinese civil service.
  
172 -168 BC 3rd Macedonian War - The Third Macedonian War broke out after Perseus revived the Macedonian army and became a renewed threat to Roman influence. The Roman Legions, led by Consul Aemilius, destroyed the Macedonian army at the Battle of Pydna.

160 BC Judas Macabaeus - The Jews in Judea were prohibited from practicing their religion. In 167 B.C. the Jews, led by an aged priest Mattityahu and his five sons, led a revolt against the Seleucid Empire. Judas Maccabeus, son of Mattityahu, liberated Jerusalem and cleansed the Temple. This led to independence for Judea.  

149 BC Third Punic War- The Third Punic War occurred as a result of Rome's obsession with Carthage. Roman Senator Cato would end every speech with "Carthage must be destroyed". The Roman army landed at Carthage and laid siege to the city. The siege lasted three years, but in the end, the Romans captured Carthage and razed the city.

149 - 148 BC 4th Macedonian War- The Macedonians led by Andricus, who claimed to be a son of Perseus, rebelled against Roman rule. The Romans defeated the Macedonians, made Macedonia a province of Rome and executed Andricus.

148 BC Masinissa, King Of Numidai Dies- Masinissa, King of the Numidia, changed the lifestyle of the Berbers from nomadic to agricultural. He died in 148 B.C. after a rule of 60 years.  

146 BC Cathrage Razed- At the end of a three-year siege, the Romans captured Carthage. The city was completely razed. The area was reorganized as the Roman province of Africa.
  
144 BC Aqueducts Bring Water To Rome- By 144 BC the Roman had developed an extensive aquedeuct system to bring water to Rome. The Romans had developed hydralic cement which did not dissolve in water, and this allowed them to build bigger aqueducts.  

142 BC First Stone Bridge With Arches- The Pons Aemilius bridge was built across the Tiber River. It was the first bridge to use stone arches.  

135 BC 1st Serville Wars- The slaves of Sicily revolted. The revolt was led by the Syrian Eunus. In the course of three years of fighting, the revolt was put down. Most of the rebels were executed.  

134 BC Simon Macabaeus- Simon Maccabeus and his two older sons were assassinated by his son-in law. Simon was succeeded by his remaining son, John Hyrcanus. He successfully extended Judea to include Samaria and lands to the east of the Jordan River.  

133 BC Tiberius Gracchus- Tribune- Gaius Gracchus came to power. he was more forceful then his slain brother Tiberias. Gaius reenstated the land reforms of his brother with a vengeance. His actions were not popular with the senate, and they refused him a third term as tribune. The result was chaos in Rome. The ensuing fighting resulted in the death of Gaius and many of his supporters.

123 BC The Gracchi- Gaius Gracchus came to power. he was more forceful then his slain brother Tiberias. Gaius reenstated the land reforms of his brother with a vengeance. His actions were not popular with the senate, and they refused him a third term as tribune. The result was chaos in Rome. The ensuing fighting resulted in the death of Gaius and many of his supporters.  

120 BC Hipparchus Astronomer- In 120 BC Hipparchus died. He was the greatest astronomier of ancient times. He created a complete catalogue of the stars, listing their latitudes and longitudes.

103 - 101 BC 2nd Servile War- The second Servile War broke out when slaves in Sicily under Tryphon and Athenion revolted. The Roman consul M. Aquilas quelled the revolt only after great effort.

91 - 88 BC The Social War- The Social War broke out when Italians who were not citizens of the Roman Empire revolted. While parts of the revolt were settled only on the battlefield, it was not until all Italians were offered citizenship in Rome that the rebellion finally ended.
  
89 - 84 BC The Mithridatic War - The Mithridatic war broke out between Rome and the Anatolian Kingdom of Pontus. The war was precipitated by the seizure of Roman protectorates by Mithridates IV. The Anatolians gained control of the sea and formed alliances with Athens and other Greek city-states. The Romans appointed Consul Sulla to fight the Anatolians. The Romans retook Athens and then defeated the Mithridates at the Battles of Chaerona and Orchomenus, in central Greece. Finally, the Roman navy defeated the Mithridates' navy.
The war ended with the Treaty of Dardanus in 84 B.C., under whose terms the Mithridates gave up all the captured territories and paid a fine to Rome.

82 BC Consul Sulla Enters Rome- In 82 B.C., Consul Sulla returned to Rome after subduing opponents of Roman rule. Sulla was elected dictator of Rome. He then brutally repressed all opponents to his regime. He restored the power of the aristocracy and destroyed the power of the tribunes.

73 BC Third Servile War -The most famous slave revolt, which became known as the Third Servile War, was led by Spartacus, a gladiator. Spartacus and his men seized Mount Vesuvius, and thousands of slaves flocked to his side. Spartacus defeated a number of Romans armies. He was eventually defeated by a Roman army led by Praetor Crassus and was killed in 71 B.C.

65 BC Pompey's Conquest- Roman forces under the command of Pompey defeated Mithridates VI, king of Pontus. Pompey forced Mithridates to flee to the eastern Black Sea regions and then to Armenia. Finally, Mithridates committed suicide thus ending the war and giving Pompey a total victory.

63 BC Pompey Captures Jerusalem -Pompey was invited to settle a dispute between Hyrcanus II and his brother, Aristobulus II, and took this as an opportunity to conquer Judea. After a three-month siege, Pompey captured Jerusalem. Pompey killed 12,000 of Jerusalem's Jews.  

60 BC Pompey, Crassus & Julius Caesar Form Triumvirate- Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompey and Marcus Crassus formed the first triumvirate to rule Rome. Each had successfully commanded Roman armies in the field. They worked together to advance each other's needs. The alliance was cemented when Caesar's daughter Julia married Pompey.  

58 BC Caesar Defeats Celtic Hevetii (Switzerland)- In the Battle at Issus, Macedonian forces under Alexander, met a Persian army, numbering nearly 500,000 men, under the command of Darius lll. Alexander attacked the Persian infantry in the center of the lines and achieved an overwhelming victory, decimating the Persian forces.  

57 BC Caesar Defeats Celtics Belgae Tribes- Julius Caesar defeated the Celtic Helvetica tribes from what is modern-day Switzerland. The battle took place at Bibracate in the present-day France. The Rhine become the frontier as most of Eastern France was occupied by the Romans.
  
55 BC Caesar Invades Britain- Caesar led Roman troops across the Straits of Dover for a short reconnaissance mission and then returned to Gaul. He came to England the next year with a larger force, defeated the Catuvellauni and established Roman sovereignty over parts of England.

50 BC Kingdoms Of Korea Founded- The Kingdoms of Korea were founded around 50 B.C. There were the Koguryo in the north, Silla in the southeast and Pakche in the southwest.50 BC Kingdoms Of Korea Founded- The Kingdoms of Korea were founded around 50 B.C. There were the Koguryo in the north, Silla in the southeast and Pakche in the southwest.

49 BC Caesar Crosses The Rubicon- Julius Caesar and his army crossed the Rubicon in Northern Italy. Caesar was declared a public enemy by the Roman Senate for refusing to disband his army. By crossing the Rubicon, Caesar broke Roman law and was guilty of treason. Pompey was forced to flee as Roman soldiers flocked to Caesar. Caesar successfully gained control of all Italy. The next year, Caesar achieved complete victory over Pompey in the Battle of Pharsalus.

48 BC Julius Ceasar Puts Down Rebellion In Egypt- Julius Caesar traveled to Egypt in pursuit of Pompey, whom he had earlier defeated. When Caeser arrived, he learned that Pompey had been killed. Caesar then suppressed a rebellion against Cleopatra VII.

45 - BC Caesar Defeats Pompey's Sons - Caesar fought the sons of Gnaeus and Sextus at the Battle of Munda in Southern Spain. Sextus escaped but Gnaeus was caught and executed by Caesar. This put an end to Rome's civil war. Caesar returned to Rome and was made dictator for life.

44 BC Caesar Assassinated- Despite Caesar's many accomplishments and general popularity, there remained a group of disaffected citizens. Most were former Antony supporters who had been pardoned and given positions of responsibility by Caesar.
The ringleader of what became a conspiracy to assassinate Caesar was Longinus Caius Cassius. He was joined by Marcus Junius Brutus.
A meeting of the Senate was called for the 15th (the Ides) of March to discuss the Parthian War. Caesar had been warned not to attend the session, but went anyway. The moment Caesar took his seat, the conspirators surrounded him. They began to petition him to recall from banishment a certain Cimber. When Caesar arose, they attacked him with knives. It is said that Caesar tried to defend himself, but when he saw Brutus among the attackers he cried out 'Et Tu, Brutus' and succumbed.
The death of Caesar was followed by a power struggle between Mark Antony and Julius Octavian.

43 BC Second Triumvirate - The Second Triumvirate was established in 43 B.C. in Rome. It was composed of Mark Antony, Octavian and M Aeumillius Lepidus. This triumvirate was officially recognized by the Senate.

43 BC Cicero Assassinated- Cicero, the greatest Roman orator, denounced Antony. In return Antony ordered the assassination of Cicero. Cicero was subsequently murdered.

42 BC Anthony Defeated Cassius - Mark Antony battled the forces of Cassius at Philippi. Cassius was defeated and committed suicide. Twenty days later, forces under Brutus were also defeated and Brutus, too, committed suicide.

37 BC Herod The Great - Herod the Great was recognized by the Roman senate as King of Judea. The Hasmonean dynasty which had ruled Judea until this period, had allied themselves with the Parthians, who were to be defeated by Mark Antony's forces.

36 BC Romans Under Vispasanius Battle Of Naulochus- The Roman fleet, commanded by Agrippa, defeated a fleet commanded by Pompey the Younger at the Battle of Naulochus. Pompey escaped to Anatolia only to be executed by troops of Mark Antony the next year.

31 BC Battle Of Actium- With the end of the five-year term of the Second Triumvirate, a rivalry broke out between Mark Antony and Octavian. Mark Antony was discredited by Octavian for his marriage to Cleopatra. Octavian successfully convinced the Senate that Mark Antony's actions were a danger to Rome, and they allied with him against Antony. A naval battle broke out at Actium off Epirus in Western Greece. Although the battle results were not decisive, Antony and Cleopatra fled to Egypt, where Antony's army surrendered. Antony and Cleopatra killed themselves soon after.

27 BC Octavian, First Roman Emperor- Octavian became the first Roman Emperor. His defeat of Mark Antony brought a period of peace to the empire. In 27 B.C., Octavian declared the "restoration of the Republic;" in fact, he retained many powers in his own hands. He directly controlled all the armies of Rome. As army commander, Augustus (as Octavian was now known) received the title Imperator (emperor).
Octavian greatly streamlined the administration of the provinces. He directly appointed the governors of all the provinces that still required military control. He also approved all other appointments.
The Senate continued to meet, but Augustus completely dominated all aspects of Roman society. The peace he brought Rome and the careful way he exercised power ensured his great popularity.

16 BC Tiberius Campaigns Against Germanic Tribes- Archimedes the Greek mathmetician discovered the principles of specific gravity. The principle states that a body submersed in a liquid, the liquid loses the same weight as the weight of the body submersed. This was used by the Greeks to determine the purity of gold..

10 BC Herod Builds Artificial Harbor- Herod the Great built a new city on the Mediterranean coast. He named the city Ceasaria. Ceasaria became the Roman capital for Judea. What was unique about Ceasaria was the harbor that was built. It was the first artificial harbor built in an open sea.

3 BC Herod The Great Dies- Herod the Great, King of Judea, died after a peaceful 33-year reign. He was strongly favored by Rome for bringing stability to Judea, but disliked by many Jewish factions for his lack of religious zeal. He is best known for his building projects. He rebuilt the Temple in Jerusalem and established the city of Caesarea, among many other achievements.

1 AD  Jesus Christ was born On Decemeber 25th
  
6 AD Herod Deposed-Herod Archelaus was deposed by the Roman Emperor, Augustus because of Herod Archelaus' brutal treatment of the Jews of Judea and Samaria.  

9 AD German Tribes Destroy 3 Roman Legions- Three Roman legions under the command of P Quinctilius Varnus were defeated by a German army led by Ariminus. The battle took place in the Teutoburg Forest, and resulted in Varnus committing suicide.The results of this battle ensured German independence from Rome.
  
9 AD Hsin Dynasty- Wang Mang founded the short-lived Hsin Dynasty. He instituted wide-ranging reforms that included breaking up large estates, and freeing of slaves. There was a great deal of opposition to his policies and he was eventually forced to tax slaveholding instead of releasing slaves. Wang Mang instituted a series of price controls on staples. His opponents fomented revolts against him and in 23 he was killed during one such revolt.
  
14 AD Tiberius Secedes Augustus - Augustus died on August 19th at Nola. While legally all of his powers ceased with his demise, Augustus had arranged for his family members to succeed him. Thus Tiberius, the son of Augustus' wife Livia by her first marriage, became the new Emperor of Rome.

25 AD Han Dynasty Founded - After the death of Wang Mang, Hou Han founded the Eastern Han Dynasty. During this dynasty, which lasted until 220, Buddhism was introduced into China.  

30 AD Jesus Christ was put to death by the Romans in Jerusalem on April 7th  

41 AD Caligula Assassinated- After the death of Tiberius, he was succeeded by Caligula. Caligula was considered by many to be insane. He was assassinated by Cassius Chaerea, a member of the Praetorian Guard on January 24th in the year 41 A.D.

51 AD Conquest Of Wales Completed By Romans- The Romans under Ostorius Scaopula defeated Carctacus of Wales. This eventually led to the complete subjugation of Wales to the Romans twenty years later.  

54 AD Claudius Murdered, Nero Emperor- According to legend, Claudius was assassinated by his wife Agrippina using poisoned mushrooms. Agrippina then arranged for her son, Nero, to become Emperor. Nero eventually had his mother killed.  

64 AD Rome Burns- The city of Rome was nearly destroyed in a catastrophic fire. The fire is said to have been set by Nero. Legend has it that 'Rome burned while Nero fiddled'.  

66 AD Judaea Rebels Against Rome- A rebellion broke out in Jerusalem against Roman rule. The Roman fortress of Antonia in Jerusalem was captured and the soldiers killed. The Romans dispatch an army from Syria to quell the revolt, but it was destroyed on the way to Jerusalem.
  
68 AD Year of the Four Emperors- The year 69 A.D. is known as the year of the four emperors. Nero was assassinated and civil war erupted to determine who would succeed him. In the course of that tumultuous year, Nero was succeeded by Galba who was followed by Otho. Otho was defeated by Vitellius and Vespasian finally established a new dynasty. Vespasian himself was the son of a tax collector from Reate. He represented a complete break with the Augustinian dynasties that preceded him.  

70 AD Jerusalem Falls- Rome sent an enormous army under the command of Vespasian, to retake Judea. The Roman army quickly subdued the Jewish forces in the Galilee and laid siege to Jerusalem. Vespasian was recalled to Rome and the siege continued by his son, Titus. Titus succeeded in capturing Jerusalem on the ninth day of Ab (according to the Jewish calendar). He burned Jerusalem, killing or selling into slavery tens of thousands of Jews.51 AD Conquest Of Wales Completed By Romans- The Romans under Ostorius Scaopula defeated Carctacus of Wales. This eventually led to the complete subjugation of Wales to the Romans twenty years later.  

73 AD Masada Falls- The Fortress of Masada, occupied by Jewish zealots opposed to Rome, held out for three years. Masada was located in the Judean Desert near the shores of the Dead Sea. When it became clear that they could hold out no longer, the defenders of Masada committed mass suicide rather then become captives of the Romans.

78 AD Kushan Dynasty- The Kushan Dynasty was established by Kanishka. The Kushan Empire extended from Benares and Kabul to the Vindhayas. The Kushan capital was at Peshawar. The Kushans thrived on the Chinese-Roman trade that passed through their Empire.
  
79 AD Mount Vesuvius Explodes- In 79 A.D., Mount Vesuvius erupted. The eruption destroyed the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Most of the cities' populations managed to flee, but 20,000 inhabitants were killed.
  
80 AD Coloseum Dedicated-Vespasian had ordered the Colosseum built, but it fell to his son Titus to dedicate it. It was used for gladiator games until 404 AD.  

89 AD Domitian's Reign Of Terror- Domitian who succeeded Titus Vespasianus (his older brother), commenced a reign of terror after an abortive coup against him. Domitian levied heavy taxes on the provinces. Domitian was assassinated in 96 A.D.

96 - 180 AD Five Good Emperors - Starting with Emperor Marcus Nerva, Rome was ruled by five individuals who became known as the "Good Emperors". The Emperors maintained both domestic tranquility and relative peace on the borders. They were known for building roads and other large civil projects.
The Five Emperors were:
96-98 A.D. Marcus Nerva
98-117 A.D. Marcus Traianus
117-138 A.D. Publiius Hadrianus (Hadrian)
138-161 A.D. Antoninus Pius
161-180 A.D. Marcus Aurelius

122 AD Hadrian's Wall Was Built- The Roman emperor Hadrian on a visit to Britain ordered the construction of a defensive wall. The wall stretched 70 miles across Northern England.

132 AD Chang Heng Invents Seismograph- The Chinese poet and inventor developed the first seismograph. The instrument was a series of balls that fall if there is the slightest tremor.
  
132 AD Bar Kochba Revolt- The Jews of Jerusalem rose up in rebellion in 132 after the Romans built a temple to Jupiter on the site of the Jewish Temple. The revolt was led by Simon Bar Kokhba and Rabbi Eleazar and achieved some successes early on. The Romans were forced out of Jerusalem and most of Judea. Three years later, Roman armies under the command of Julius Severus retake Jerusalem and sack it. Bar Kokhba is killed at the village of Bethel. Under the orders of Roman Emperor Hadrian, Jerusalem is completely leveled and Jews are forbidden to live there.

167 AD German Tribes Invades Northern Italy- The German tribes crossed the Danube River and attacked the Roman Empire. They advanced as far as Aquileia in Northern Italy. The Romans under Marcus Aurelius managed to repulse the Germans in
169 A.D.

180 AD Marcus Aurelius Dies- In 180 A.D., Marcus Aurelius died and was succeeded by his son, Commodus. Commodus was the first emperor since Domitian to succeed by virtue of birth, rather than by assassination. Commodus later had two of his prefects executed. He lavished enormous wealth on himself and was strangled in 192 A.D.

184 AD Revolt of the Yellow Turbans-In 184, a rebellion broke out among the peasantry in China. The government ministers were massacred and the Han dynasty was effectively brought to an end

200 AD Septimius Severus-Septimius Severus came to power at the point of a sword. Severus first challenged Didius Julianus who was the highest bidder to become emperor at a auction held by the Praetorian Guard. Severus went on to defeat Septimius Albinus and Pescennius Niger, each head of his own legion and each claiming the right to be Emperor.

212 AD Edict Of Caracalla- Caracalla, the son of Septimus Severus who succeeded him after killing his brother, issued the Constitio Antoniniana. Although this edict extended Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Empire, its value was limited since citizens actually had very few rights at this time.

220 AD Three Kingdoms- Six Dynasties- With the end of the Han Dynasty, Tsao Pei assumed power and founded the Wei Dynasty. The Wei dynasty was the first in a series of dynasties known as the Six Dynasties. While the Wei dynasty would eventually be recognized as the legitimate one, for some period of time, three competing kingdoms each claimed to be the legitimate rulers of China.

224 AD Battle Of Hormizdagan- Artabanus V, king of the Parthian Empire is defeated in the battle of Hormizdagan by Ardashir the shah of Persia. This proved the beginning of the Sassanid Empire.  

235 AD The Roman Army On Rhine Revolts - Alexander Severus the Roman Emperor conducted an indecisive campaign against the Germanic tribes. Alexander Severus' troops revolted and killed him. Maximinus, a Thracian general, became the new emperor.

259 AD Marcus Postumus Defends Gaul-From 235 to 284 A.D., the Roman Empire was shaken by Civil War. There were 22 emperors and all but two met their deaths violently. During this period, both Germanic tribes in the north and Sassanid Persians in the east made inroads into the Empire.
  
274 AD Battle At Chalons - In 260 A.D., Marcus Postumus created a separate Gallic Empire. In 274 A.D. at the Battle of Chalons, his successor Pius Tetricus was defeated, thereby ending the short-lived Gallic Empire.  

284 - 305 AD Age Of Diocletian - Diocletian became emperor in 284 A.D. He engaged in a series of reforms that reinvigorated the empire and transformed it. His actions launched the period that became known as the Late Empire.
Diocletian divided the empire into four administrative units each with its own rulers and administration. Diocletion strengthened the army as well as the civil service.

287 AD Aurelius Carausius Revolts-Aurelius Carausius, commander of the Roman fleet in the English Channel, revolted. He established England as an independent kingdom of Britain.  

296 AD Britain Reinvaded By Romans- Constantius Chlorus invaded Britain. He defeated Allectus who had killed Marcus Aurelius Carausius. Britain was reintegrated into the Roman Empire and divided into four provinces.  

296 AD Battle Of Carrhae - Artabanus V, King of the Parthian Empire, is defeated at the Battle of Hormizdagan by Ardashir, the Shah of Persia. This marked the beginning of the Sassanid Empire.287 AD Aurelius Carausius Revolts-Aurelius Carausius, commander of the Roman fleet in the English Channel, revolted. He established England as an independent kingdom of Britain.  

296 AD Britain Reinvaded By Romans- Constantius Chlorus invaded Britain. He defeated Allectus who had killed Marcus Aurelius Carausius. Britain was reintegrated into the Roman Empire and divided into four provinces.  

296 AD Battle Of Carrhae - Artabanus V, King of the Parthian Empire, is defeated at the Battle of Hormizdagan by Ardashir, the Shah of Persia. This marked the beginning of the Sassanid Empire.

303 AD Galerius Convinces Diocletian To Persecute Christians- Galeria the Roman Augustus convinced Diocletian to begin a general persecution of Christians in an attempt to stop the growth of the religion. Churches were burned, and clergy were imprisoned. Persecution decreased in the Western Empire by 305 A.D. and ended in the East in 313 A.D.

317 AD Tatar Warriors Break Through Great Wall- Tatar warriors broke through the Great Wall of China that had been built during the Han Dynasty to provide Northern China with protection against invasion. The Tatars drove out the Western Chin Dynasty, which was forced to move its capital to Nanking.

320 AD Gupta Dynasty- The Gupta Empire was founded in 320 by Chandragupta I. Under his successor, Samudragupta, the Gupta Empire was extended to include all of Northern India. The Gupta Empire ushered in a new golden age of Indian culture.
  
324 AD Constantine The Great & The Battle Of Adrianople - Constantine the Great, who was named Caesar by his troops in Britain in 312 A.D., initiated a civil war of succession against his potential rivals for the throne. In a series of engagements that culminated in 324 A.D. at the Battle of Adrianople (in today's Turkey), Constantine defeated all his rivals and became the undisputed emperor of all Rome.

325 AD Persian Repel Arabs - Persia was invaded by Arabs from Baharian and Mesopotamia. Shapur II became leader of the Persians. It was he who carried the war to the Arabs, seizing much of Arabia and making them vassal states to the Persian Empire.  

330 AD Constantine The Great Establishes His Capital At Byzantium- In 330 Constantine the Great dedicated his new capital at Byzantium. The city that became known as Constantinople. It was strategically located in the East dominating the Bosphorus Straits. Constantine spent four years building his new capital.  

337 AD Constantine The Great Dies And Empire Divides- In 337 A.D., Constantine died. He left his empire to his sons. The empire soon found itself divided with the Western Roman Empire governed from Rome by Constans and the Eastern Roman Empire governed by Constantius II.

351 AD Battle At Mursa- Reunites Empire- At the Battle of Mursa in present-day Croatia, Constantius defeated Magnentius. Magnentius committed suicide and the Roman Empire was once again united.
  
361 - 363 AD Battle Of Argentoratum- At the Battle of Argentoratum in 357 A.D., the Roman general Julian drove the Franks from Gaul, thus re-establishing the Rhine as the frontier of the Empire. Julian's victory served to ensure his popularity and he became the next Roman Emperor. But his reign lasted only 18 months: from November 361 to June 363 A.D. Julian is best known for his attempt to reinstitute paganism into Rome.

376 AD Ostrogoths Subjected By The Huns- The Huns, a nomadic Mongol people, swept in from Asia. They managed to defeat the Ostrogoth Empire. This brought to an end an empire that had dominated Eastern Europe for 200 years.
  
378 AD Valens Killed by Visigoths- After their defeat by the Huns, the Visigoths sought refuge in the Roman Empire. The Roman emperor Valens gave them permission to cross the Danube as long as they agreed to disarmament. In the end, the Visigoths were mistreated by Roman officials and they revolted. At the Battle at Adrianople, the Visigoths deployed mounted cavalry against the Romans. The Romans were soundly defeated by the Visigoths and Valens was killed. This represented one of the worst defeats ever suffered by the Romans. The northern borders of the Empire had been permanently pierced.

395 AD Theodosius Dies Empire Split Permantly- When Emperor Theodosius died in 395 A.D., the Roman Empire was forever split. Theodosius was succeeded by his sons Arcadius, who ruled the Eastern portion, and Honorius, who ruled the Western.

400 AD Windmills Used In Persia-The Fifth Syrian War ended at the Battle of Banyais, between Antiochus II (King of the Seleucid Empire) and Ptolemy V of Egypt. The Egyptians were decisively defeated by Antiochus' forces, and were forced to cede all their territory -- with the exception of the Sinai Desert -- to the Seleucids.
  
407 AD Romans Withdraw From Britain- In 407 A.D., Constantine led his troops on a withdrawal from Britain. Roman troops never returned to Britain.
  
410 AD Rome Sacked by Visigoths- After a series of battles that continued sporadically for over ten years, the Visigoths under the command of Alaric, sacked Rome in August 410 A.D. For twelve days, Alaric and his men rained ruin upon the city.

439 AD Cathrage Captured By Vandals - The Roman city of Carthage was captured by Vandals, under the command of Genseric. Carthage became his capital.

441 AD First Saxon Revolt- The first Saxon revolt against native Britons took place in 441 A.D. It was led by two brothers, Hengst and Horsa.

451 AD Attila The Hun Defeated- Attila the Hun was leader of the Huns and it was he who had earlier defeated the Visigoths. Attila commanded an army that is said to have numbered as many as half a million men. Attila swept through Gaul. In 451 A.D., Attila faced the Visigoths and Romans together in the battle of Chalons. Attila was defeated in this battle, and forced to withdraw. He went on to invade Italy but was convinced to withdraw by Pope Leo. He died in 453 A.D.  

455 AD Saxons Crush Britons- At the battle of Aylesford in Kent, England, the Saxons led by Hengst and Horsa defeated the Britons. This battle was an important step in the Saxon conquest of Britain.  

455 AD Vandals Sack Rome- The Vandals viewed the assassination of the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III as an opportunity to attack Rome. Their attack was successful and the city was sacked.  

476 AD Western Roman Empire Ends- The Western Roman Empire came to an end when the Emperor Romulus Augustulus was deposed by German mercenaries at Ravenna. The German mercenaries then declared themselves to be the rulers of Italy.

483 AD Shah Defeated By Ephthalites- Firuz, the Shah of Iran, was defeated by the Ephthalites (from the site of present-day Afghanistan). Firuz attacked the Ephthalites after a series of inconclusive skirmishes with them.
  
486 AD Roman Occupation Of Gaul Ends- The last Roman emperor of France was defeated by Clovis I, King of the Salian Franks. After the defeat of the Romans, Clovis established the Kingdom of the Franks.  

488 AD Ostrogothic Kingdom Of Italy- Theodoric I (the Great) invaded northern Italy at the request of Zeno the Byzantine Emperor. He conquered Italy and established the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy.

500 AD Arthur's Victory Over Saxons-The legendary Arthur won a battle against the Saxons at Mound Badon in Dorset, in Southern England. This slowed the Saxon conquest of England

500 AD Svealand- The First Swedish State- Svealand, the first Swedish state was founded around 500 A.D. The Goths inhabited the Southern part of the Swedish peninsula. Much of what is known about early Sweden has been taken from the epic "Beowulf", written in 700 A.D.  

503 - 557 AD Persian-Roman Wars- Between 503 and 557 A.D.,three successive wars -- interrupted by periods of peace -- are fought between the Persian Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. All have the same basic cause -- an inability to define the borders and the relationship between the two empires. In 567 a 'definitive' peace was reached. Under its terms, Rome agreed to pay the Persians 30,000 pieces of gold annually. The borders between the empire were reaffirmed, Christian worship was to be protected in the Persian Empire, and regulation of trade and diplomatic relations were laid out.

507 AD Kingdom Of Franks - The Franks' Clovis defeated the Visigoths under Alaric II at the Battle of Vouille. The Visigoths retreated into Spain, where they retained their Empire.  

532 AD Nika Revolt- A popular uprising took place in Constantinople against Justinian. Constantinople was nearly destroyed by fire. The insurrection quelled with great cruelty by Belisarius. Thirty thousand people were slain.  

537 AD Hagia Sophia Cathedral Built- The Hagia Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople was completed. The cathedral represented the culmination of Byzantine architecture, with a large domed basilica.

552 AD Battle at Taginae- The Byzantine army invaded Italy and defeated the Ostrogoths at the Battle of Taginae. The Byzantines, using a combination of pikes and bows, decimated the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy.
  
558 - 650 AD The Avars- The Avars, a Turkish Mongolian group, formed an Empire that extended from the Volga to the Hungarian plains. In 626 A.D., they laid siege to Constantinople, but were forced to withdraw.  

565 AD Justinian Great- Justinian the Great died in 565 A.D. bringing to end 38 years of rule as leader of the Byzantine Empire. Under his stewardship, the Empire expanded to include all of North Africa and parts of the Middle East as well as Italy and Greece. Under Justinian, the first comprehensive compilation of Roman Law was published.

572 AD Leovigild King Of Visigoths- Leovigild the King of Visigoths set off to reinvigorate the empire. He extended the Vistigoth dominance to all parts of the Iberian Pennisular.

577 AD Battle At Deorham- At the Battle of Deorham in southwestern England, the Saxons defeated the Welsh. This victory virtually completed the Saxon conquest of England.
  
581 AD Sui Dynasty Reunites China- After nearly four centuries of internal divisions and strife, China was reunited under the leadership of Yang Jian. A member of a respected aristocratic family, Yang Jian founded the Sui Dynasty. Yang Jian used Buddhism to help unite the kingdom.  

598 AD Pope Greogory Obtains 30 Year Truce- Gregory the Great was the first monk to become Pope. For many, he was a model for the future papacy. Gregory controlled the civil affairs of Rome and expanded the power of the Church. Gregory also negotiated a 30-year truce with Lombards, insuring the independence of Rome.

600 AD Kingdom of Funan And Chenla-The Cambodian Kingdom of Funan was taken over by the Northern Kingdom of Chenla.
  
604 AD Shotoku's Reforms- Between 593 and 628 Empress Suiko ruled Japan. During her reign, the prime mover behind the throne was Prince Shotoku. In 604, Shotoku issued a seventeen-article "Constitution". It called for a strong central government in Japan, based on the Chinese model. Some of Shotoku's reforms were implemented leading to a more centralized Japanese government.  

618 AD T'ang Dynasty Founded- The T'ang Dynasty was founded in 618 by Li Yuan and his son Li Shih-min. The T'angs dynasty used Loyang and Ch'ang-an as eastern and western capitals. The basic administrative organization of the Tang dynasty would guide China until the 20th century.  

622 AD Forced To Flee Mecca -The town elders of Mecca initially opposed the teachings of Mohammed. They forced him to flee to Medina. His flight became known as the Hegira.  

627 AD Battle Of Nineveh At the battle of Nineveh, the forces of Heraclius (the Byzantine Emperor), defeated the forces of the Sassanid Empire. The Persian forces were led by Khosrau II. The victory saved the Byzantine Empire from further Persian attack.  

630 AD Muhammed organized the commonwealth of Islam in and around Mecca. A series of battles was fought between Mecca and Medina. Under the Treaty of Hudaybiya, Muhammad's followers were finally given the right to undertake pilgrimages to Mecca. But when this right was denied them, they took control of the city.

632 AD Muhammed died in 632 A.D. Abu Bakr became the first Caliph or 'agent of the prophet'. He brings rebellious Arab tribes under control.  

634 AD Abu Bakr dies after ruling as Caliph for only two years. He is succeeded by Omar, who is given the name 'sword of God' for his many military exploits in expanding Muslim rule. His first target will be Syria.  

635 AD Persians Defeated- Under Omar, the Arabs begin a series of campaigns against the Persian Empire. They first lose to the Persians at the Battle of the Bridge, only to defeat the Persians in 635 at Tel Buwayb. Omar goes on to win a series of battles. The Battle of Nehawand in central Persia completed his conquest of the Persian Empire in 642.  

637 AD Jerusalem Surrendered- Omar began a campaign against the Byzantines. The Arab forces defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Yarmuk. The Arabs took Damascus and Emessa. In 638 Jerusalem surrendered to Omar's forces. Ceasaria and Aleppo were soon taken as well.  

639 AD Rois Faineats- Dagobert was the last strong king of the Frankish Kingdom. With his death, royal power declined. In its place, arose a period of feudal decentralization. Land and power were more strongly concentrated in the aristocracy. There was a breakdown of state power which became decentralized in the hands of local officials who ruled with nearly complete independence.
  
642 AD Arabs Conquer Egypt- Arab forces under the command of Amir ibn al-As attacked Egypt. In 642, under terms arranged by Cyrus, Patriarch of Alexandria, Egypt surrendered. Terms of the agreement included guaranteed security for people and property, as well as freedom of religion. All this was to be obtained in return for the payment of tribute.

644 AD Omar I Assassinated- Omar I was assassinated in a mosque of Medina. His assassin was a Persian slave of a provincial governor. Omar was seceded by Othman from the Omayyad clan.  

656 AD Battle Of The Camels- Othman was assassinated in Medina. He was succeeded by Muhammed's nephew and son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib. The succession is disputed by Aisha, Muhammmad's widow, on behalf of the Omayyad clan. Ali defeats the rebels at the Battle of the Camels.  

660 AD Kingdom of Silla (Korea)- The Kingdom of Silla, on the Korean peninsula, conquered the Paekchke Kingdom. It then went on to capture the Koguryu Kingdom. These conquests brought about the first unification of the Korean Peninsula.  

661 AD Ali Assassinated- Ali was assassinated in a mosque in Kufah. His assassin was a former supporter who became a Kharajite critic of Ali. Ali was succeeded by Muawiya who founded the Omayyad caliphate.  

673 - 678 Ad Arab Forces Fail To Capture Constantinople- From 673-678 A.D., Arab forces besieged Constantinople. The siege failed due to both the strength of the city walls and a new invention- "the Greek Fire" which caused havoc among the Arab fleet. In 678 A.D., a 30-year peace treaty was negotiated.  

680 AD Battle Of Karbala- The Caliph Muawiya died in Damascus after an 18-year reign. His son Yazid succeeded him. Yazid's succession is contested by the Kufans, who invited al-Husain, the son of Ali, to be the new caliph. When al-Husain arrived from Mecca, a battle took place at Karbala. Al-Husain was killed, becoming a martyr for Shi'ite Muslims.  

680 - 1018 AD First Bulgarian Empire- The first Bulgarian Empire was created when the Bulgars defeated the Byzantines. They then went on to occupy the area between the Danube and the Balkan Mountains. The Bulgarian Empire was in constant conflict with the Byzantine Empire. In 1018, the Bulgars submitted to the Byzantines and became part of the Byzantine Empire.

685 AD Malik I- Malik I (Abd-al-Malik ibn Rarawn) became the new caliph. He ended decades of regional strife, instituting a postal service and replacing the Roman and Greek coins used in the empire with Arabian ones.

700 AD Chinese Invent Gunpowder-The Chinese combined saltpeter, sulpher, and carbon to create gun powder. The Chinese used gun powder primarily for fireworks.  
700 AD Srivijaya Empire (Indonesia)-The Srivijaya Empire becomes the leading power in Indonesia. The Srivijayas originated in southern Sumatra. They controlled commercial trade routes through the islands.  

705 AD Walid I- Malik I was succeeded by his son Walid. Under Walid's reign, the Omayyad Caliphate reached India in the East and Spain in the west. Many important structures were completed under his stewardship including the Dome of the Rock Mosque in Jerusalem.  

705 AD Wu Hou Empress Of China - Wu Hou became Empress of China in 705. She was the first woman to rule China and during her reign strengthened the T'ang Dynasty.  

707 AD Muslim Army Conquers Tangiers - Tangiers was captured by Muslim armies under the command of Musa ibn-Nusayr in 707. Musa was the Ommayad governor of North Africa. The Moroccan Berbers were subdued by Musa.
  
711 AD Islamic Conquest Of Spain- The Islamic conquest of Spain began when Tariq, a Muslim general, crossed the Straits of Gibraltar. On July 26th his army of 7,000 men defeated Roderick, the last King of the Visigoths at the Battle of Wadi Bekka. The Muslims went on to the conquest of Spain, advancing to the Pyrenees by 718 A.D.  

711 AD Charlemagne- Charlemagne became the Frankish ruler in the east upon the death of his brother Caroman I. Until his brother's death, Charlemagne had ruled the Neustri and Aquitaine. In a series of campaigns, Charlemgne expanded his empire to include all of Germany . He maintained very close ties to the Pope, thus increasing church influence.

718 AD Pelayo Founded Kingdom Of Asturias- Pelayo defeated the Muslims at Covadonga in Northwest Spain. Pelayo, a Christian, created the Kingdom of Asturias.  

730 AD Khazar Defeat Arabs. Khazar commander Barjik leads Khazar troops through the Darial Pass to invade Azerbaijan. At the Battle of Ardabil, the Khazars defeat an entire Arab army. The Battle of Ardabil lasted three days, and resulted in the death of a major Arab general named Jarrah. The Khazars then conquered Azerbaijan and Armenia and northern Iraq for a brief time.
  
732 AD Battle Of Tours- At the Battle of Tours, the Franks under Charles Martel, defeated a Muslim expedition led by Adb-el-Rahman across the Pyrenees. This marked the furthest incursion of Muslim forces into Europe.  

749 AD Abu-Al Abbas Accepts A Public Oath- The Omayyad Caliphate was overthrown when Abu Al-Abbas, the great-grandson of Muhammad's uncle, took the public oath as leader of the Abbasids. The Omayyads are then defeated at the Battle of the Zab River by the Abbasids. Nearly all members of the Ommayad clan are then murdered by the Abbasids.  

754 AD Pepin The Short- Pepin was the King of the Franks. Pope Stephen II sanctified him both as a king and as king of the Frankish Church. Pepin founded the Carolingian Dynasty.
  
754 AD AL Mansur becomes ruler- With the death of Abu al-Abbas, al-Mansur became his successor. al-Mansur swiftly eliminated all threats to his rule and extended the power of the Abbasid Caliphate.  

775 - 785 AD Al-Mahdi Reigns- Al- Mahdi ruled the Abbasid Caliphate for ten years. These were years notable for the improvement of communications within the empire and for the founding of schools and towns. Al-Mahdi also encouraged the arts.  

780 - 809 AD Harun Al Rashid- Harun al-Rashid headed the Abbasid Caliphate from 786 to 809. Under his reign, the caliphate reached the height of its power. His court in Baghdad was the center of a rich world of artists, poets and musicians.  

794 AD Kyoto Founded- The Kyoto period in Japanese history began when the Emperor moved the capital to a site near that of present-day Kyoto. The period lasted until 1185.

800 AD Charlemagne- Emperor Of The West- Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the West by Pope Leo III on December 25th -- Christmas Day -- in St. Peters Church. Pope Leo allowed Charlemagne to clear himself of a series of charges. The coronation of Charlemagne represented an irrevocable breach between Constantinople and Rome.
  
802 AD Angkor Period- The Angor Period began in 802, when Jayavarman II established his capital at Angor. Jayavarman united all of Cambodia, and achieved independence from Java.  

813 - 833 AD Mamun The Great- The caliphate reached its most glorious period under the rule of Mamun the Great. A house of knowledge was set up in Baghdad. There the great Greek and Roman works of antiquity were translated into Arabic.  

843 AD Treaty Of Verdun - Under the Treaty of Verdun, the Carolingian Kingdom of the Franks was divided into three parts. Louis II ruled the Frankish Kingdom east of the Rhine. Lothair I ruled northern Italy, part of France and Belgium; and Charles II (the Bald) ruled the western Frankish Empire, consisting of most of today's France.  

820 AD Algebra Invented The Arabic scholar al-Khwarizmi set forth the branch of Alegebra. Al Khwarizmi derived his works from Hindu works as well as other earlier works.  

845 AD Wu-Tsung Persecutes Buddhists- During the reign of the Taoist Wu Tsung, other religions were persecuted. The Buddhists were among the persecuted, but had become so integral a part of China that the religion survived the persecution.  

851 AD Danish Viking Sack London- Danish vikings sailed up the Thames in 851 A.D. They sacked London and Canterbury but were defeated at Ockley by the King of the West Saxons.  

860 ADKhazar Kings Convert to Judaism- The Khazar kings convert to Judaism. A Jewish dynasty of kings presides over the Khazar kingdom until the 960s.
  
862 AD Rurik Lead Viking Raids- Found Russia- The Viking chieftain, Rurik, led raids on Northern Russia. It is believed that in 862, he and his band called Varangians were invited to Novogrod to bring order to the area. This is said to mark the beginning of the Imperial Russian Period.
  
866 - 1160 AD Fujiwara Period- The Fujiwara period began in Japan in 866. Fujiwaa Mototsune became the first civilian dictator. During this period important works of classic Japanese literature and art were produced.  

867 AD Basil Founds Macedonian Dynasty- Basil had his co-emperor Michael III murdered to become the sole ruler of the Byzantine Empire. Basil founded what became known as the Macedonian Dynasty which would last until 1076. This is considered the Golden Age of the Byzantines.  

872 AD Harold I King Of Norway- Harold I was responsible for the creation of modern Norway by deposing many of the petty chieftains to unify the country.

878 AD Alfred Great Victory Over Danes- Alfred the Great won a major victory over the Danes in the Battle of Edington in Southern England. As a result of this battle, the Treaty of Wedmore was signed between Arthur and the Danes. it divided England into Northern and Southern sectors with London falling in Alfred's Southern region.

907 AD Five Dynasties Begin- The period between 907-959 was known as the period of Five Dynsties. During this period imperial control was largely limited to the Yellow River Basin.
  
911 AD The Treaty Of St. Clair-sur-Epte- In 911 A.D., the Treaty of St. Clair-sur-Epte was signed. Under the terms of the treaty, the Kingdom of Normandy was established, Rollo the Viking became the first ruler, and he converted to Christianity.  

935 AD Koryo Dynasty Founded- The Koryo Dynasty was founded in 935 by Wang Kon who had united Korea. The Koryo Dynasty established a strong central government as well as a civil service. This dynasty remained in power until 1392.

945 AD Ahmad Ibn Buwayh Caliph - A member of a Persian clan, Ahmad ibn Buwah entered Baghdad unopposed. He declared himself to be the new caliph. This begins the Buwayhid Dynasty that is to rule for 100 years.
  
955 AD Otto I The Great Defeats Magyars Otto the Great defeated the Magyars in 955 A.D. at the Battle of Lechfeld. This ended 50 years of Magyar raids on Western Europe.  

960 AD Sung Dynasty Founded- The Sung Dynasty was founded by Kao Tsu. During his lifetime, Kao Tsu managed to reunite much of China. The Sung Dynasty is considered to mark the advent of modernity in China. It was period known for progressive social policies, as well as a productive period for art, poetry and philosophy.  

962 - 1886 AD The Ghaznavids- The Ghaznavids dynasty was founded by Subaktagin, a Turkish slave who converted to Islam. The dynasty established itself in what is now known as Afghanistan. The leader of the Ghaznavids on the death of his father became Mahmud of Ghanzni. A fervent Muslim, he expanded his rule to include most of Northern India.
  
962 AD Otto I Emperor Of Rome- Otto the Great was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope John XII. Otto ended the anarchy in Rome by soon appointing his own Pope. He revived the power of the Western Roman Empire.  

989 AD The Peace of God - The Peace of God was passed at the Council of Charroux. It was supported by Hugh Capet, King of France. The Peace of God attempted to reduce feudal warfare by limiting private wars to certain parts of the year, and by providing protection for noncombatants. The Peace used to the power of excommunication to enforce its stipulations.

990 AD Kingdom Of Ghana Defeats Saharan Berbers- The Kingdom of Ghana defeated the Saharan Berber tribes of Lemtuna in 990. The Ghanians captured Audaghost, the Berber capital.

1014 AD Basil II Defeats Bulgarians-The Byzantine Emperor Basil II routed the Bulgarians at the Battle of Cimbalugu. Basil killed most of the Bulgarian army, and then blinded 24,000 Bulgarian captives. The Bulgarians were forced to submit to Byzantine rule.  

1016 AD Canute II Rules All Of England- On the death of Ethelred II the King of England, Edmund II succeeded to the throne. Canute II, a Dane, was chosen by the Witan- the advisory council to the King. Canute II battled Edmund at Ashington and defeated him. This led to Caunute II being crowned King of all England.

1025 AD Boleslav- First King Of Poland- Poland gained independence from the Holy Roman Empire when Boleslav I was crowned the first Polish King at Gniezno in 825. Poland quickly emerged as one of Europe's most powerful nations, extending from the Bugthe to the Elbe and from the Danube River to the Baltic Sea.
  
1031 AD The Ommiad Caliphate Of Spain Dissolved - After 30 years of anarchy, the Omayyad Caliphate of Spain dissolved on the death of Hisham III. Spain was divided into a number of small Muslim states.  

1034 AD Byzantine Empress Poison Husband The Byzantine Empress Zoe poisoned her husband, Romanus III. She went on to marry Michael IV of Paphiagonia and then reigned together with him until 1041.  

1055 AD Sejuk Turks Take Bagdhad- Seljuk Turks, under the command of Togrul, captured Baghdad. They ousted the Persian Buwayhid Dynasty. The Abbasides looked upon the Seljuks as liberators and supported them. The Seljuk Empire would reach it's zenith under Malik Shah who expanded the Empire to the point that it seriously threatened the Byzantine Empire's continued existence.

1057 AD Anwratha - Burma United - Anawratha, the Burmese king of Paga, conquered the Mon Kingdom of Thaton. For the first time, all of Burma was under unified rule.  
Battle Of Hasting- At the Battle of Hastings, the Norman, William the Conqueror defeated Harold II, King of England. The victory led to the complete domination of England by the Normans. On December 25th, William was crowned King of England at Westminster Abbey.  

1066 AD Tower Of London Constructed- William the Conquerer began building the Tower of London in 1066. It stands to this day.

1076 AD Kingdom Of Ghana Defeated- The Berber Almoravids conquered the Kingdom of Ghana. The capital Kumbi Saleh was sacked. The Ghanaian empire fell apart.  

1085 AD Alfonso VI Conquers Toledo- Alfonso VI, the Christian King of Leon and Castile, captured Toledo from the Almoravids and made it his capital.
  
1094 AD El Cid Takes Valencia- Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar known as El Cid, captured the Moorish Kingdom of Valencia after a nine-month siege. Violating the terms of the surrender, El Cid had the Cadi ibn Djahaff burned alive.

1096 - 1099 First Crusades- The First Crusade began with a call By Alexius I in 1095 for assistance from other Christian states to counter repeated attacks made by Seljuk Turks. He also decried Muslim control of the Holy Land.
His call was echoed by the Pope. As many as 30,000 people responded and joined the Crusade. The Seljuk Muslims are easily defeated in Syria. In 1099, the Crusaders arrive in Jerusalem. They lay siege to the city, capture it and thoroughly sack it killing thousands of Muslims and Jews indiscriminately.

1106 AD Battle of Tinchebray- An English war of succession came to an end at the Battle of Tinchebray, in Normandy. It began with the death of William II, King of England on August 2nd, 1100. Henry I (Beauclerc) seized the throne, but was opposed by his brother Robert II (Curthhose), of Normandy. Henry defeated Robert at Tinchebray and returned him in chains. Robert spent the rest of his life in prison.  

1113 AD Khmer Empire Reaches Peak - The Khmer Empire in present-day Cambodia was established in 600 and reached its peak under Suryavarman II. Under his leadership, the Khmer Empire was expanded to include most of the area consisting of modern-day Vietnam.  

1125 AD Henry V Dies Matilda Returns to England- Henry V, King of Germany and the Holy Roman Empire, died after leading an expedition against the French Louis VI. His widow, Matilda, returned to England where her father forced English nobles to accept her as his successor after the death of his son at sea. When Henry I, her father, died Stephen of Blois, Henry's nephew, refused to accept Matilda's rule and he seized power. This resulted in a ten-year war of succession.

1143 AD Alfonso I King Of Portugal- Under the terms of the Treaty of Zamora in 1143, the independence of Portugal was recognized. Alfonso I became the first King.  

1147 AD Second Crusade - The Second Crusade was organized by Louis VII, King of Spain and Conrad III, King of Germany. The Crusade came to a disastrous end due to a lack of leadership and control. It ended with an aborted siege of Damascus.

1147 AD Morrocco Conquered By Almohads - Morocco was conquered by Abd al-Mumin, the leader of the Berber Muslim Almohad Dynasty. This conquest brought to an end the Almoravid Dynasty. By 1152, Algeria was also brought under the control of the Almohads.  

1157 AD Eric IX Jedvardsson Defeats Finns- Eric IX (Jedvardsson) Christian King of Sweden, defeated the Finns. He then forced them to convert to Christianity.
  
1163 AD Work Began On Notre Dame- One of the most notable gothic churches was begun in 1163- Notre Dame. The church was conceived by Maurice de Sully, bishop of Paris.

1168 AD Oxford Founded- The school of Oxford was founded in 1168. After the founding of the University of Paris in 1200 Oxford became an offshoot of it.
  
1171 AD Saladin Founds Ayyubid Dynasty- Saladin, ruler of Egypt, proclaimed the end of the Fatima dynasty that had ruled Egypt since 968. He declared himself Caliph of the new Ayyubid dynasty.  

1171 AD Henry II Launches Invasion of Ireland- Henry II, King of England responded to a request for help from Ireland's deposed King Dermot MacMurrough, by sending forces to Warford. Henry was recognized as the ruler of Ireland by the Treaty of Windsor in 1171.  

1174 AD William The Lion Defeated- Henry II defeated William the Lion, King of Scotland at the siege of Alnwick Castle in 1174. William officially accepted Henry as the ruler of Scotland.  

1176 AD Frederick I Barbarossa Defeated By Lombard League- The Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick I (Barbossa) was decisively defeated by the Lombard League at Legano. Frederick was attempting to reassert his authority over northern Italy.  

1184 AD Streets Paved In Paris- The streets in front of the Louvre were paved. This marked the first time streets in Paris were paved.  

1185 AD Battle of Dannoura- The Japanese Tairo clan was decisively defeated by the Minamoto clan in a naval battle that took place off Dannoura. The child emperor Antoku, who had been held prisoner by the Taira, was killed in the battle. Japan entered the Kamakura period in the aftermath of the battle. It was a era marked by a clear division between the powerless imperial court and the dominant military government.  

1187 AD Battle Of Hittin- Christian forces from the Kingdom of Jerusalem attacked a caravan carrying the sister of Saladin. In retaliation, he began a holy war against the Crusaders. At the Battle of Hittim, he defeated a combined Christian army. He then laid siege to Jerusalem and captured it, although he did not sack the city after the conquest.
  
1186 AD Second Bulgarian Empire- A successful revolt took place against the Byzantine rule of Bulgaria. This established the second Bulgarian empire which lasted until 1396.  

1192 AD Crusader Captures Acre- Spurred by Saladin's triumph, the Christians launch the Third Crusade, led by Richard the Lionhearted. Despite many difficulties, they reached the coastal area of the Holy Land and successfully captured the Acre fortress. Richard negotiated a truce with Saladin that ensured Christian access to holy sites in Jerusalem.
  
1199 AD Richard The Lionhearted Dies- Richard the Lionhearted died of an arrow wound while besieging Chalus in Western France. Richard, ruler of England since 1189, had actually spent very little time there. Instead, he helped lead the Third Crusade. Richard had been imprisoned by the Holy Roman Emperor in 1193, but managed to purchase his freedom. He fought an on-going battle with Philip II of Normandy. While Richard was involved in affairs outside England, the land was administered for him by Jubert Walter.

1200 AD University Of Paris Founded -Phillip II, King of France, issued a charter to establish the University of Paris. The University offered a traditional liberal education.  

1202 AD Fourth Crusade- The Fourth Crusade began at the behest of Emperor Henry, King of Sicily. Pope Innocent III issued a call to European monarchs to participate in the Crusade. The call was answered primarily by the French baronage. The only way to reach Egypt -- the objective of the Crusade -- was by sea. The Crusaders asked the Venetians to transport them, but the Venetians demanded 85,000 marked and half the booty. When the impossibility of raising that sum became clear, the Venetians agreed to transport the Crusaders, if the Crusaders would promise to capture the Christian city of Zara. Pope Innocent, who had opposed the action, excommunicated the Crusaders.

1202 AD Danish Empire- Valdemar II succeeded to the Danish throne upon the death of his brother. Valdemar expanded the Danish Empire to include Northern Germany.
  
1204 AD Crusaders Capture Constantinople - Constantinople was captured for the first time in 1204. Soldiers of the Fourth Crusade seized the city on April 12 after a six-month siege. They mercilessly sacked the city.

1206 AD Genghis Khan In 1206, Temujin was proclaimed Genghis Khan. Khan established the Mongolian capital at Karakorum. He expanded the empire to include to much of Northern China and Korea. In 1220, he turned his attentions to Persia.

1212 AD Las Navas de Tolosa Battle- At the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, forces of the Christian Spanish King Alfonso VIII of Leon and Castile were victorious against Muslim Almohades. This marked the beginning of the end of Muslim rule in Iberia.  

1215 AD Magna Carta- In 1215, a group of determined barons forced King John of England to sign the Magna Carta. Under the terms of Magna Carta, the British aristocracy was granted the rights of trial by jury and protection from arbitrary acts by the King.
  
1217 AD French English Battles- With the death of King John, civil war soon divided England. The French with prince Louise intervened and occupied part of England. The French were defeated by the English at the Battle of Lincoln and then lost their fleet at the naval Battle of Sandwich. They were forced to withdraw.

1228 AD 6th Crusade Controls Jerusalem- The Sixth Crusade, led by Frederick II, managed to gain control of Jerusalem through diplomatic means. Frederick signed a treaty with Malik al-Kamil, the nephew of Saladin. Under the terms of the treaty Malik ceded Bethlehem, Jerusalem, Nazareth and a corridor to the port of Acre to Frederick. Frederick had himself crowned King of Jerusalem at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre on March 18th 1228.

1229 AD Great Khan- Genghis Khan died in 1227. By that time, he had captured much of the Persian Empire, and had led raids as far away as the Steppes of Russia. Genghis Khan was succeeded by his third son, Ogadai. Ogadai, whose title became 'the Great Khan' subdued the Chin dynasty in northern China, and ravaged much of Eastern Europe.

1231 AD Golden Bull Of Sicily- The Golden Bull of Sicily was issued in 1212 by Frederick I. It brought about a complete reorganization of Sicily. More importantly, it constituted a complete promulgation of a code of laws for the subjects of Sicily.  

1232 AD 1st Known Use Of Rockets- In the 1232 the Chinese used rockets in battle for the first time. This demonstrated the military use of gunpowder. From this moment on the use of gunpowder spread rapidly around the world.  

1232 AD Royal Charter For Coal Fields- A royal charter was issued in 1239 for the development of the coal fields in New Castle. This began the rapid development of coal as a source of energy.  

1236 AD Cordoba Taken From Moors- In 1236, Ferdinand III captured Cordoba from the Moors. By 1248, after the capture of Seville, only Granada was left in Moorish hands.  

1240 AD Nevsky Defeats Swedes- In 1240, Alexander Nevsky a Russian prince, defeated the Swedes, near St. Petersburg. The Swedes had invaded at the request of Pope Gregory IX, who wanted to punish the Orthodox Russians for helping the Finns avoid conversion to Latin Catholicism.
  
1244 AD Jerusalem Recaptured By Muslims- Muslim mercenaries under the direction of the Egyptian pasha Khwarzmi, captured Jerusalem. This leads to the Sixth Crusade, which did not achieve its goals. Egypt controlled Jerusalem until 1517, and it remained in Muslim hands until 1918.  

1250 AD Seventh Crusade Ended First Mameluke Dynasty Founded- The Seventh Crusade met defeat at the hands of Egyptian forces led by the new Caliph, Turanshah, at the Battle of Fairskur on April 6th 1250. Turanshah captures Louis IX whom he released only after the payment of a ransom.
The actions of the new caliph troubled many of the Egyptian leaders who had supported him. They turned to the Mamelukes to overthrow Turanshah. The Mamelukes went on to rule Egypt until 1517.

1258 AD Provisions Of Oxford- In 1258, a crisis developed in England over a new series of taxes levied by Henry III. Rebellious barons led by Simon de Montfor demanded a program of reforms be enacted by the "Mad Parliament". There would be a council of fifteen who would have veto power over the actions of the king. The council was to meet three times each year.
  
1260 AD Battle Of Ain Jalut- The advance of the Mongols on the Muslim world was stopped at the Battle of Ain Jalut, fought in Palestine between the Mamelukes (led by the ex-slave Baybars) and Julegu Khan, who had captured Damascus. In the course of the battle, the Mongol general Ket Buqa was killed and thus the Mamelukes carried the day.  

1262 AD Norway Annexes Iceland and Greenland- Norway's King Haakon IV intervened in a civil war in Iceland. The result: annexation by Norway of both Iceland and Greenland.  

1270 AD Louis IX Dies- Louis IX died in 1270 while on the Eighth Crusade. His reign was marked by a huge expansion of royal power. The King's power increased at the expense of both the Church as well as local communal movements. The royal justice system was also greatly expanded. This was a period marked by material and cultural advances in France.
  
1271 AD Marco Polo- In 1271, Marco Polo -- accompanied by his father -- set off for China. They arrived in the court of the Great Khan, where Khan took the European visitors into his service.
Polo became intimately acquainted with all parts of China. When he returned to Europe after 15 years of service to the Khan, he wrote the Book of Various Experiences about his time in Asia, that garnered wide readership in Europe.

1273 AD Hapsburg Dynasty Established- The great Interregnum ended. It had been in existence since 1254 when the last Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire died. The new Emperor was Rudolf I of the Hapsburgs. In 1278, the Hapsburgs gained control over Austria. Thus began a dynasty that lasted until 1918.

1280 AD Kublia Khan- Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, founded the Yuan dynasty in China. The site of present-day Peking became his capital. Khan completed the conquest of China becoming the first non-Chinese to rule that land. Kublai Khan's empire stretched from China to Arabia and Eastern Europe- the largest the world has ever known.
  
1281 AD Failed Chinese Attack On Japan- A large Mongolian armada that may have number 145,000 men landed at Hakozaki Bay. The Japanese were waiting for them and repulsed the attack. A typhoon then destroyed the Mongol fleet, leaving their army to be killed or enslaved.  

1282 King Of Denmark Accepts Limitation Of Power- Danish nobility forced Eric V to sign a Danish "Magna Carta". This document established a Danish parliament that met once each year. The King was made subordinate to the Parliament.
  
1284 AD Genoa Defeats Pisa- The Republic of Genoa fought the rival Italian city state of Pisa. Pisa was defeated at a naval battle off Meloria. Genoa then enjoyed a golden age, while Pisa was occupied by a series of other city states.  

1291 AD Swiss Confederation Founded- Three Swiss cantons, Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden formed the League of the Three Forest Cantons in 1291. The League was established for mutual defense. The cantons made no claims of independence, but this League constituted the basis for the ultimate establishment of the Swiss state.  

1293 AD Finland Conquered by Sweden- Eric IX (Jedvardsson) Christian King of Sweden, defeated the Finns. He then forced them to convert to Christianity  

1298 AD Scottish Rebellion Against English- The English under Edward I won a decisive victory over the Scots at the Battle of Falkirk. The Scots had rebelled under the leadership of William Wallace. The English used long bows successfully to subdue to the Scots and end the rebellion.  

1298 AD Chinese Develop A Cannon- The Chinese developed the first prototype canon. While the Chinese were at the forefront of the early use of gunpowder, it was the Europeans who soon developed pistols and other guns that gave them a decisive military advantage.

1302 AD Philip IV Calls Meeting Of The Estates General- Philip IV of France called together representatives of the nobility, townspeople and clergy for the first time. The gathering became known as the Estates-General. Philip's main purpose in convening this group was to garner support against Pope Boniface, whose bull 'Unam Sanctum' proclaimed Papal supremacy over national leaders.
  
1309 AD Avignonese Papacy- Pope Clement V, who was heavily influenced by Philip IV of France, took up residency in Avignon, France. Clement rescinded Boniface's pronouncements against Philip. Until 1378, Popes continued to reside in Avignon.

1314 AD Battle Bannockburn- Scotland- The Scots, led by Robert the Bruce, routed a larger force led by Edward II, King of England. The two armies met at the Battle of Bannockburn, which took place in central Scotland. The Scottish victory insured Scotland's independence for the next three centuries.  

1314 - 1317 AD Great European Famine - The worst famine to strike Europe occurred between 1314-1317. It was widespread, affecting all of Northern Europe. Eyewitness accounts tell of the poor and hungry resorting to eating cats and dogs.  

1315 AD Swiss Victory - Swiss forces, led by the canton of Schwyz, gained a victory over Leopold I (Hapsburg) Duke of Austria at the Battle of Morgarten. The victory led to an expanded Swiss alliance. By 1353 Switzerland was established.
  
1326 AD Isabelle Desposes Husband England was invaded by the French wife of King Edward II - Isabelle. She was supported by French troops and gained control of England as Edward II was forced to flee London. Isabelle arranged for her son Edward III to be crowned King.

1326 AD The Ottoman Empire Founded- The Ottoman Empire was established when the Byzantine fortress of Bursa falls after a nine-year siege to the forces of the Osmali Turks, under Osman. The same year, Osman died and was succeeded by his son Orkhan who ruled until 1360. Under Orkahn, the Empire expanded to include central Anatolia and Thrace.  

1337 AD Hundred Year War- The Hundred Years War began when Philip VI contested the English claim to Normandy and other northern provinces. At the same time, Edward III contested Philip's legitimacy based on the fact that his mother was the daughter of Philip IV. He demanded the crown of France. Edward won the support of many Flemish towns. He ravaged the French countryside, but at first fought no decisive battles.

1340 AD French Fleet Annihilated- The French navy was destroyed at the Battle of Sluis which took place off the coast of Flanders. The victory gave England naval supremacy in the English Channel.
  
1340 AD Battle Of Crecy - A smaller British force under the command of Edward III defeated a French army under the command of Philip VI. This marked the first use of cannon and small arms in battle in Europe.  

1347 - 1353 AD The Black Death- The Black Death (bubonic plague) that spread throughout Europe between 1347 and 1353 was the worse natural disaster in European history. It is estimated that of a population of 75 million people, between 19 to 35 million died. The plague was spread by rats infested by infected fleas. The plague originated in the East. Ships carrying infected vermin came to the island of Sicily. The disease spread northward throughout Europe. It took two hundred years for Europe's population to recover. One of the most bizarre results of the plague was the large-scale outbreak of anti-semitism. Jews were accused of causing the plague. Over 60 Jewish communities were entirely wiped out in Germany alone.

1348 AD University Of Kracow Founded The University of Kracow was founded in Poland. Its sponsor was Casimir III the King of Poland.  

1356 AD Battle In Poitiers- At the Battle of Poiters, the Black Prince of Wales Edward defeated the French. In the course of the battle, the French king, John II, was taken prisoner and brought to England. This resulted in civil chaos in France.  

1360 AD Treaty of Calias- With both England and France exhausted by the war, they signed the Treaty of Calias on October 24th 1360. Under its terms, John II of France was ransomed and Edward III renounced his claim to the French throne.  

1368 AD Chu Yuan-Chang, A Chinese Buddhist Monk Founds Ming Dynasty- A large Mongolian armada that may have numbered 145,000 men, landed at Hakozaki Bay. The Japanese were waiting for them and repulsed the attack. A typhoon then destroyed the Mongol fleet, leaving the army to be killed or enslaved.  

1372 AD Revival Of Hundred Year War off La Rochelle- The Hundred Years War resumed when the French fleet defeated the British fleet off La Rochelle y France. The French were helped by a powerful fleet from Castile. On June 27, 1375 the French and English signed the Truce of Bruges. Under its terms, the British presence in France was limited to Calia, Brest, Bordeaux and Bayonne.  

1381 AD War of Chioggia- The Venetians and the Genoans fought in the War of Chioggia. The Genoans blockaded the Venetians after seizing Chioggia. The Venetian fleet under Vittoria Pisano defeated the Genoans. This began the golden age of Venice.  

1381 AD The Peasants Revolt- A rebellion led by Wat Tyler created anarchy throughout England. 30,000 rioters converged on London. Once there, they burned a number of public buildings and beheaded the archbishop of Canterbury. King Richard made promises to meet the rioters demands, however the next day Tyler was killed and the revolt was put down.

1385 AD Portugal Free from Spain- The Portugese fought Castile at the Battle of Ajubarrota. The Portugese were led by John the Great. His victory insured the independence of Portugal.
  
1397 AD Union of Kalamar- Magaret Queen of Sweden completed the conquest of Denmark and Norway. She then went on to form the Kalamar League, which became a Union of all three countries.

1400 AD Kingdom of Maracca was Founded-The Kingdom of Malacca was founded on the Malay peninsular in the current day Indonesia. Malacca, which was founded by Paramesvara, soon became the leading maritime power in South East Asia.

1400 AD Mongols Invade Syria- In 1400 the Mongol conqueror Tameralne invaded Syria after devastating Georgia and Russia. The next year he laid waste to Aleppo Damascus and Baghdad. In 1402 Tamerlane then went on to defeat the Ottoman sultan at the battle of Angora.

1405 AD Mongol Empire Divided- Tamerlane, the leader of the Mongols, died suddenly while preparing to attack Ming China. With his death the Mongol Empire rapidly fell apart.

1410 AD Battle of Tannenberg - The Poles and the Lithuanians defeated German Knights at the Battle of Tannenberg on July 15th 1410. Despite the victory, at the Peace of Thorn signed in 1411, the Poles failed to gain access to the sea.

1415 AD English forces destroy French at Battle of Agincourt The British decisively defeated the French at the battle of Agincourt on October 25th. The British archers, under the command of Henry V, were the key to the British victory over the French . Five French counts, 90 barons and over 5,000 French knights were killed in the battle and 1,000 were taken prisoner. As a result of the English victory the French nobility was shattered and the feudal system was destroyed. Normandy lay open to English reconquering.

1415 AD Henry the Navigator- Takes Ceuta - The Portuguese explorer and prince, Henry the Navigator captured Ceuta, in today's Morocco from the Marind dynasty. This begins Portuguese conquest of parts of Africa.

1420 AD Chinese Capital- Peking- The Second Ming Emperor moved the capital of China from Nanking to Peking.
1420 AD Treaty of Troyes- The French under Philippe and England under Henry V signed the Treaty of Troyes. Under the terms of the treaty Henry became the the king of both France and England. Henry was allowed to occupy all the land to the Loire.

1423 AD Battle of Cravant - In 1422 England resumed its war with France. In August 1423 French and Scottish forces were decisively defeated by the forces of England under the command of John Plantagent who was acting as regent for the infant Henry VI.

1424 AD France Invades Italy- Charles VIII King of France began the Italian Wars by invading Italy in September 1494. In February 1495 Naples surrendered to Charles. He temporarily became the King of Naples. Alexander VI organizes the Holy League which included Spain to repel the French from Italy. In July 1495 the French lost the Battle of Fornovo and Charles was forced to flee Italy.

1424 AD James I Freed- King of Scotland After being held in English captivity from the age of 11, Scotland's James I was freed at the age of 29. The earl of Somerset remited 10,000 marks to ransom James as a dowry for his daughter Jane. Jane and James were married in February 1424. In May James was crowned King of Scotland.

1429 AD Joan of Arc Frees Orleans - War between France and England continued on and off, despite various agreements to cease. In 1428 the English began to beseige the Orleans. Joan of Arc a young girl from Lorrain began to have visions and claim to hear voices. She convinced the French dauphin to provide her with a small army and went on to liberate Orleans. This changed the very nature of the conflict giving the French a new sense of confidence in their conflict with England and reinvigorating the French monarchy. Joan convinced the people that the dauphin was the legitimate son of Charles VI and he was crowned King at Reims on July 17, 1429.

1431 AD Joan of Arc- Burned Alive- Joan of Arc entered Comiegne outside Paris and was taken prisoner. The British held Joan in prison in a tower in Rouen.Charles VII made no effort to assist her. The English in 1431 turn Joan over to the former bishop of the of Beauvais Pierre Cauchon on the assurance she would be convicted of treason against God. She was convicted and burned to death at the stake on May 30, 1431.

1431 AD Angkor Sacked - Angkor, the capital of the Khmer, was captured and sacked by the Thais. The Khmer Empire was forced to move its capital to the present site of the Cambodian capital Phnom Penh.

1435 AD Peace Treaty of Arras -In 1435, Duke Philip of Burgundy became weary of his alliance with the English. He signed a peace treaty with Charles VI which recognized Charles as the one king of France. Charles promised in return to punish the murders of Philip's father. The English did not accept the peace treaty and warfare continued. Charles and Philip fought together and liberated Paris from the English. A truce then ensued between Britain and France that lasted 13 years.

1438 AD Inca Dynasty Founded- The Inca Dynasty that ruled Peru until 1553 was founded in 1438. Its founder is said to have been Pachacutec. He rapidly expanded the empire.

1444 AD Battle of Varna- The Ottoman forces fought a constant series of battles along its Hungarian border. Murad the Ottoman sultan decided to end the strife once and for all. He attacked Belgrade, the chief fortress on the Hungarian border. He was repulsed from Belgrade. Encouraged by their victories the Christians declared a new Crusade against the Ottomans, whose goal was to drive them from Europe. The Christian armies were led by Hunyadi who acheived two important victories, the first at the battle of Hermanstadt, and then at the battle of Nissa in which the Ottomans are driven from Bulgaria.

1450 AD Printing Press Invented- In 1450, Johannes Guttenberg invented the printing press. The invention of the press revolutionized communication and education, allowing the development of newspapers, as well as reasonably priced books. The first product of the press was the Guttenberg Bible.

1453 AD Battle of Castillon-Charles VI became the first king to maintain a standing army, when he created a small French standing army. Knowing that the English were divided Charles decided to attack and reclaim Normandy. His attacks met little resistance. The English sent a fresh army led by Talbot against Charles, but at the battle of Chatillon the English were decisively defeated and the Hundred Years War came to an end.

1453 AD Constantinople Falls to Forces of Muhammad II- The Byzantine Empire came to an end when the forces of Muhammad II captured Constantinople. Muhammad's forces had been kept at bay by an iron chain that kept his ship away. He brought 70 small ships overland. In addition Muhammad had 250,000 troops and a 1,200 pound cannon that breached the wall of Constantinople. When the walls were breached on May 29th the city fell and over a thousand years of Byzantine rule ended.

1454 AD Treaty of Lodi -Under the term of the Treaty of Lodi hostilities ended between Venice, Milan and Florence. The peace treaty was reached due to the efforts of Pope Nicholas V.

1455 AD War of the Roses Begun - The War of the Roses began in 1455. The war was a civil war between the houses of Lancaster and York. The war was limited to English nobility and involved few of the populace. The first battle of the war was the Battle of St Albans which took place near London. At that battle the Yorkist defeated the Royalist forces.

1456 AD Cape Verde Islands Discovered - Cape Verde Islands off the African coast near Dakar was discovered by Alivse da Cadamosto who was employed in the service of Henry the Navigator. The islands were soon settled by the Portuguese who began to use it for the slave trade.

1461 AD Battle of Towton Moors-War of Roses- The Royalist who wore red roses to battle were defeated by the Yorkist wearing white roses at the Battle of Towton Moors. The battle which was the bloodiest of the war, resulted in Edward being crowned Edward IV King of England.

1471 AD Battle of Tewkesbury- The War of the Roses continued to wage. Edward married Elizabeth Woodville who had no money or rank. Edward handed out titles and money liberally so much so that he aroused the jealousy of the Earl of Warwick. Warwick arranged the ouster of Edward and the return of King Henry. When Warwick was killed in the battle of Barnet Henry was returned to jail, where he was killed immediately. Margaret, Henry's wife, continued the struggle, but at the Battle of Tewkesbury Margaret's son was killed and she was captured.

1471 AD Kingdom of Anman Founded- Le Thanh-ton leading the Kingdom of Annam captured Vijaya the capital of the Cham, in present day Vietnam.1431 AD Joan of Arc- Burned Alive- Joan of Arc entered Comiegne outside Paris and was taken prisoner. The British held Joan in prison in a tower in Rouen.Charles VII made no effort to assist her. The English in 1431 turn Joan over to the former bishop of the of Beauvais Pierre Cauchon on the assurance she would be convicted of treason against God. She was convicted and burned to death at the stake on May 30, 1431.

1431 AD Angkor Sacked - Angkor, the capital of the Khmer, was captured and sacked by the Thais. The Khmer Empire was forced to move its capital to the present site of the Cambodian capital Phnom Penh.

1435 AD Peace Treaty of Arras -In 1435, Duke Philip of Burgundy became weary of his alliance with the English. He signed a peace treaty with Charles VI which recognized Charles as the one king of France. Charles promised in return to punish the murders of Philip's father. The English did not accept the peace treaty and warfare continued. Charles and Philip fought together and liberated Paris from the English. A truce then ensued between Britain and France that lasted 13 years.

1438 AD Inca Dynasty Founded- The Inca Dynasty that ruled Peru until 1553 was founded in 1438. Its founder is said to have been Pachacutec. He rapidly expanded the empire.

1444 AD Battle of Varna- The Ottoman forces fought a constant series of battles along its Hungarian border. Murad the Ottoman sultan decided to end the strife once and for all. He attacked Belgrade, the chief fortress on the Hungarian border. He was repulsed from Belgrade. Encouraged by their victories the Christians declared a new Crusade against the Ottomans, whose goal was to drive them from Europe. The Christian armies were led by Hunyadi who acheived two important victories, the first at the battle of Hermanstadt, and then at the battle of Nissa in which the Ottomans are driven from Bulgaria.

1450 AD Printing Press Invented- In 1450, Johannes Guttenberg invented the printing press. The invention of the press revolutionized communication and education, allowing the development of newspapers, as well as reasonably priced books. The first product of the press was the Guttenberg Bible.

1453 AD Battle of Castillon-Charles VI became the first king to maintain a standing army, when he created a small French standing army. Knowing that the English were divided Charles decided to attack and reclaim Normandy. His attacks met little resistance. The English sent a fresh army led by Talbot against Charles, but at the battle of Chatillon the English were decisively defeated and the Hundred Years War came to an end.

1454 AD Treaty of Lodi -Under the term of the Treaty of Lodi hostilities ended between Venice, Milan and Florence. The peace treaty was reached due to the efforts of Pope Nicholas V.

1455 AD War of the Roses Begun - The War of the Roses began in 1455. The war was a civil war between the houses of Lancaster and York. The war was limited to English nobility and involved few of the populace. The first battle of the war was the Battle of St Albans which took place near London. At that battle the Yorkist defeated the Royalist forces.

1456 AD Cape Verde Islands Discovered - Cape Verde Islands off the African coast near Dakar was discovered by Alivse da Cadamosto who was employed in the service of Henry the Navigator. The islands were soon settled by the Portuguese who began to use it for the slave trade.

1461 AD Battle of Towton Moors-War of Roses- The Royalist who wore red roses to battle were defeated by the Yorkist wearing white roses at the Battle of Towton Moors. The battle which was the bloodiest of the war, resulted in Edward being crowned Edward IV King of England.

1471 AD Battle of Tewkesbury- The War of the Roses continued to wage. Edward married Elizabeth Woodville who had no money or rank. Edward handed out titles and money liberally so much so that he aroused the jealousy of the Earl of Warwick. Warwick arranged the ouster of Edward and the return of King Henry. When Warwick was killed in the battle of Barnet Henry was returned to jail, where he was killed immediately. Margaret, Henry's wife, continued the struggle, but at the Battle of Tewkesbury Margaret's son was killed and she was captured.

1471 AD Kingdom of Anman Founded- Le Thanh-ton leading the Kingdom of Annam captured Vijaya the capital of the Cham, in present day Vietnam.

1472 AD Ivan III the Great - In 1472 Ivan III- The Great, married the neice of the last Byzantine Emperor. The marriage, which took place ten years into his rule, increased Ivans prestige and helped him unify the various Russian principalities.

1475 AD Treaty of Picquinty England's Edward IV invaded France in support of the Burgundians. Edward was bought off by a payment and the promise of an annual allowance by Louus XI under the terms of the Treaty of Picquinty.

1477 AD Charles the Bald Killed - The Battle of Nancy is won by Swiss pikement fighting for Louis XI. Charles the Bald, the last of the Burgundy claimants to the throne, is killed in the battle. This effectively ended the incessant battles for the French crown.

1479 AD Treaty of Alcacovas Under the treaty of Alcacovas Portugal abandoned its claim to the Castillian throne as well as its claim to the Canary Islands. The Spanish recognized the Portuguese primacy in Azores islands as well the North and West African coasts.

1480 AD Treaty of Constantinople - The 15 year war between the Ottomans and Venice ended with the signing of the Treaty of Constantinople. Under the terms of the treaty Venice was forced to cede cities along the Albanian coast to the Ottomans. Furthermore the Venetians were forced to pay for the right to trade in the Black Sea.

1485 AD Botticielli Paints The Birth of Venus -In 1485 The Birth of Venus was painted by Sandor Botticielli in Florence. It was Botticeilli’s most famous work. Botticielli also illustrated Dante’s Divana Commedia and worked on the Sistine Chapel

1487 AD Dias Circles South Africa - Bartholomeu Dias the Portuguese explorer was blown off course and around the Cape of Good Hope. He became the first European explorer to circle Southern Africa.

1491 AD Portuguese in Angola Portuguese explorers establish an embassy at Mbanza the capital of the Bantu State in the present Angola. The Kongo ruler converts to Catholicism.

1492 AD Columbus Sets Sails For New World - Isabella, Queen of Spain financed the voyage of Christopher Columbus. His goal was to find a sea route to the Orient by sailing westward. He set sail on August 3, 1492 in his flagship the Santa Maria with 52 men aboard. Also sailing was the smaller Pinta and Nina. On October 12th land is sighted.

1492 AD Jews Driven From Spain -The Jews of Spain were ordered out of Spain by July 31, 1492. Some Jews accept the cross and stayed, while over 100,000 left Spain, many traveling to the Ottoman Empire, while some settled in Portugal.

1492 AD Moors Driven out of Spain -On January 2, 1492 Granada surrendered to Isabella and Ferdinand. Granada was the last Muslim Kingdom in Spain and this marked the final expulsion of the Moors from Spain.

1492 AD Columbus Discovers America -In 1492, Columbus set sail from Spain to discover a westward passage to the Orient. His trip was financed by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. On October 12th, after several fearful weeks at sea, Columbus finally set foot on dry land. He landed at San Salvador.

1493 AD Columbus' Second Voyage - After Columbus returns to Spain with strange animals, a live Indian and other unsusual items Queen Isabella grants Columbus enormous priviledges. He is sent back with 1,500 men and a fleet of 17 ships as the governor of the new land.

1494 AD Treaty of Tordesillas - The Treaty of Tordesillas was signed which divided the world between Portuguese and Spanish lands. The Spanish received all of the land to the West and the Portuguese to the East. This gave Portugal Africa while Spain received all of the new world with the exception of Brazil.

1497 AD John Cabot Discovers NewFoundland- John Cabot together with his son Sebastian discovered Newfoundland. He claims it for England.

1498 AD Christopher Columbus Sets Sail for Third Voyage -In 1498 Christopher Columbus set sail for his third voyage to the New World. In the course of the voyage he discovered Trinidad. In addition he apparently landed in South America.

1498 AD Da Vinci paints The Last Supper- In 1498 Leonardo Da Vinci painted his most famous mural, The Last Supper. The mural depicts the last meal of Christ before being incarcerated.

1498 AD Vasco de Gama Sails to India -Vasco De Gama, the Portuguese explorer, arrived in India. He established a trading post, thus creating a new trade route between Europe and the East.

1498 AD Vasco De Gama lands in India -Following up on the discovery by Dias of the Cape of Good Hope, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama sets sail for India. In 1498, da Gama reached India.

1498 AD Cabot Claims North America For Great Britain -On June 24th, John Cabot, sailing on behalf of King Henry of England, sighted the coast of New Foundland. He claimed lands for England.

*FIK

EENS (Extra Ecclesiam Nulla Salus)

EENS (Extra Ecclesiam Nulla Salus)

Terjemahan EENS (Extra Eccesiam nulla salus) adalah: di luar Gereja Katolik tidak ada keselamatan. Banyak orang salah paham dengan ajaran ini, dan menganggap Gereja Katolik ‘arogan‘ karena mengajarkan EENS. Namun sebenarnya kalau kita memahami alasannya, maka kita melihat bahwa Kristuslah yang sesungguhnya memberikan prinsip EENS ini, yaitu: (1) Gereja tidak pernah terlepas dari Kristus; (2) Ajaran iman dan baptisan yang diperlukan untuk keselamatan dipercayakan kepada Gereja; (3) Gereja menjadi sarana keselamatan.

Kristus menyatakan bahwa Dia adalah kepala dan Gereja adalah Tubuh mistik Kristus, serta Dia adalah mempelai pria dan Gereja adalah mempelai wanita (lih. Kol 1:18; Ef 5:22-33). Dengan demikian, kalau Kristus sendiri mendirikan Gereja di atas rasul Petrus (lih. Mat 16:16-19) dan Kristus sendiri mengajarkan monogami – satu pria dan satu wanita dalam perkawinan (lih. Ef 5:31; bdk. Why 21:9) – maka Gereja hanya mungkin satu dan tidak mungkin terpisahkan dari Kristus, sama seperti tubuh tidak terpisahkan dari kepalanya (lih. Ef 5:23).

Kristus mengajarkan perlunya iman dan Pembaptisan untuk keselamatan (lih. Mrk 16:16, Yoh 3:5, Mat 28:19). Dengan demikian Kristus menegaskan perlunya Gereja -yaitu Gereja yang didirikan oleh-Nya di atas Rasul Petrus- yang melaluinya kita memperoleh ajaran iman, baptisan dan mengambil bagian dalam kehidupan-Nya serta menjadi anggota-anggota Tubuh-Nya. Namun demikian, ajaran ini tidak untuk dipertentangkan dengan kehendak Allah untuk menyelamatkan semua umat manusia (lih. 1 Tim 2:4).

Kita melihat bahwa Kristus ingin menjadikan Gereja menjadi sarana keselamatan. Namun demikian, EENS ini juga harus dimengerti dengan benar, yaitu seperti yang dimengerti oleh Gereja: (a) kemungkinan yang nyata akan keselamatan di dalam Kristus untuk semua umat manusia; dan (b) pentingnya Gereja untuk keselamatan manusia (lih. Dominus Iesus 20).


Dua hal tersebut harus dimengerti secara seimbang, karena menekankan yang satu dan melupakan yang lain dapat menyebabkan pengertian yang salah. Di satu sisi, memang kita harus melihat bahwa Kristus menginginkan keselamatan bagi seluruh umat manusia (lih. 1Tim 2:4), namun di sisi yang lain, Kristus menghendaki agar keselamatan itu disampaikan kepada semua bangsa oleh Gereja-Nya (lih. Mat 28:1-20). Keselamatan itu diperoleh karena kasih karunia Allah, oleh iman (Ef 2:8) yang bekerja oleh kasih (Gal 5:6); sebab tanpa iman, tidak ada seorangpun yang dapat menyenangkan Allah (lih. Ibr 11:1). Iman yang menjadi syarat mutlak keselamatan ini adalah iman yang adikodrati, yaitu percaya akan adanya Tuhan, yang memberi upah bagi orang yang dengan tulus mencari Dia (lih. Ibr 11:6). Maka orang yang dengan tulus seturut hati nuraninya mencari Allah -yang bukan karena kesalahannya sendiri tidak sampai kepada pengenalan akan Kristus dan Gereja-Nya, namun hidup dalam kasih yang sempurna – dapat diselamatkan oleh jasa Kristus, karena orang tersebut juga tergabung dalam Gereja-Nya, dalam keinginan (lih. KGK 847; bdk. LG 16).

Namun demikian kita menyadari bahwa Gereja, sebagai Tubuh mistik Kristus – diperlukan untuk keselamatan, karena persatuannya dengan Kristus. Oleh karena itu, bagi orang yang mengetahui bahwa Gereja Katolik didirikan oleh Kristus dan diperlukan untuk keselamatan, namun tidak mau masuk atau tinggal di dalamnya, maka ia tidak dapat diselamatkan (lih. KGK 846; bdk. LG 14).

Maka Konsili Vatikan II tidak mengubah ajaran EENS (Di luar Gereja tidak ada keselematan) yang sudah berakar sejak abad- abad awal. Namun Konsili Vatikan II menyampaikan rumusan ajaran tersebut dengan kalimat yang berbeda, yaitu dengan kalimat positif, sebagaimana disebutkan dalam Katekismus Gereja Katolik:

“Di luar Gereja tidak ada keselamatan”

KGK 846    Bagaimana dapat dimengerti ungkapan ini yang sering kali diulangi oleh para bapa Gereja? Kalau dirumuskan secara positif, ia mengatakan bahwa seluruh keselamatan datang dari Kristus sebagai Kepala melalui Gereja, yang adalah Tubuh-Nya:

“Berdasarkan Kitab Suci dan Tradisi, konsili mengajarkan, bahwa Gereja yang sedang mengembara ini perlu untuk keselamatan. Sebab hanya satulah Pengantara dan jalan keselamatan, yakni Kristus. Ia hadir bagi kita dalam Tubuh-Nya, yakni Gereja. Dengan jelas-jelas menegaskan perlunya iman dan baptis, Kristus sekaligus menegaskan perlunya Gereja, yang dimasuki orang melalui baptis bagaikan pintunya. Maka dari itu andaikata ada orang, yang benar-benar tahu, bahwa Gereja Katolik itu didirikan oleh Allah melalui Yesus Kristus sebagai upaya yang perlu, namun tidak mau masuk ke dalamnya atau tetap tinggal di dalamnya, ia tidak dapat diselamatkan” (Lumen Gentium 14).

KGK 847    Penegasan ini tidak berlaku untuk mereka, yang tanpa kesalahan sendiri tidak mengenal Kristus dan Gereja-Nya:

“Sebab mereka yang tanpa bersalah tidak mengenal Injil Kristus serta Gereja-Nya, tetapi dengan hati tulus mencari Allah, dan berkat pengaruh rahmat berusaha melaksanakan kehendak-Nya yang mereka kenal melalui suara hati dengan perbuatan nyata, dapat memperoleh keselamatan kekal” (Lumen Gentium 16; Bdk. DS 3866 – 3872).

KGK 848    “Meskipun Allah melalui jalan yang diketahui-Nya dapat menghantar manusia, yang tanpa bersalah tidak mengenal Injil, kepada iman yang merupakan syarat mutlak untuk berkenan kepada-Nya, namun Gereja mempunyai keharusan sekaligus juga hak yang suci, untuk mewartakan Injil” (Ad Gentes 7) kepada semua manusia.

Ajaran tentang EENS inilah yang mendorong Gereja Katolik untuk melakukan karya-karya misi ke seluruh dunia.

Selanjutnya, yang termasuk di dalam Gereja Katolik adalah: 1) Semua orang yang dipanggil ke dalam kesatuan katolik umat Allah; 2) Mereka yang tergabung sepenuhnya dalam serikat Gereja; 3) Mereka yang disebut Kristen walaupun tidak mengakui iman Katolik secara keseluruhan, atau tidak memelihara kesatuan di bawah kepemimpinan Paus sebagai penerus Rasul Petrus.

Selengkapnya, hal ini dijabarkan dalam Katekismus sebagai berikut:

KGK 836    “Jadi kepada kesatuan katolik Umat Allah itulah, yang melambangkan dan memajukan perdamaian semesta, semua orang dipanggil. Mereka termasuk kesatuan itu atau terarah kepadanya dengan aneka cara, baik kaum beriman katolik, umat lainnya yang beriman akan Kristus, maupun semua orang tanpa kecuali, yang karena rahmat Allah dipanggil kepada keselamatan” (LG 13).

KGK 837    Dimasukkan sepenuhnya ke dalam serikat Gereja mereka, yang mempunyai Roh Kristus, menerima baik seluruh tata susunan Gereja serta semua upaya keselamatan yang diadakan di dalamnya, dan dalam himpunannya yang kelihatan digabungkan dengan Kristus yang membimbingnya melalui Imam Agung dan para Uskup, dengan ikatan-ikatan ini, yakni: pengakuan iman, Sakramen-sakramen dan kepemimpinan gerejani serta persekutuan. Tetapi tidak diselamatkan orang, yang meskipun termasuk anggota Gereja namun tidak bertambah dalam cinta kasih; jadi yang dengan badan memang berada dalam pangkuan Gereja, melainkan tidak dengan hatinya” (LG 14).

KGK 838    “Gereja tahu, bahwa karena banyak alasan ia berhubungan dengan mereka, yang karena dibaptis mengemban nama Kristen, tetapi tidak mengakui ajaran iman seutuhnya atau tidak memelihara kesatuan persekutuan di bawah pengganti Petrus” (LG 15). “Siapa yang percaya kepada Kristus, dan menerima Pembaptisan dengan baik, berada dalam semacam persekutuan dengan Gereja Katolik, walaupun tidak sempurna” (UR 3). Persekutuan dengan Gereja-gereja Ortodoks begitu mendalam “bahwa mereka hanya kekurangan sedikit saja untuk sampai kepada kepenuhan yang membenarkan satu perayaan bersama Ekaristi Tuhan” (Paulus VI, Wejangan 14 Desember 1975 Bdk. UR 13-18).

Dasar dari Kitab Suci:

Mrk 16:16- Yesus mengajarkan syarat agar orang dapat diselamatkan, yaitu percaya dan dibaptis.
Mat 28: 19-20- Yesus memerintahkan para murid-Nya untuk mewartakan Injil dan membaptis segala bangsa, dengan demikian menunjukkan peran Gereja sebagai sarana keselamatan.
Mat 16:16-19: Yesus mendirikan Gereja di atas rasul Petrus
Luk 10:16 – Yesus mengajarkan pentingnya mendengarkan utusan Kristus, yang diwakili oleh Gereja.
Ef 5; Ef 5:23 – Gereja adalah tubuh mistik Kristus dan mempelai wanita dengan Kristus sebagai kepala dan mempelai pria.
Yoh 3:5- Yesus mengajarkan pentingnya Baptisan untuk keselamatan.
1Tim 2:4- Allah menghendaki semua orang diselamatkan
Ibr 11:6- Hanya dengan iman orang dapat berkenan kepada Allah, yaitu iman akan adanya Allah yang memberi upah pada orang yang sungguh mencari Dia


Dasar dari Tradisi Suci:

St. Ignatius dari Antiokhia (-67):
“Jangan tertipu, saudara-saudaraku: jika seseorang mengikuti seorang pembuat skisma, ia tidak memperoleh Kerajaan Allah; jika seseorang berjalan di dalam ajaran yang aneh ia tidak mengambil bagian di dalam kisah sengsara (Passio) Kristus.” (Letter to Philadelphians 3:3)

“…Jika seseorang tidak berada di dalam tempat kudus (gereja), ia kekurangan roti Tuhan. Dan jika doa satu atau dua orang sangat besar kuasanya, betapa lebih lagi doa uskup dan seluruh Gereja. Barangsiapa yang gagal bergabung dalam penyembahanmu menunjukkan kesombongannya, dengan kenyataan bahwa ia menjadi seorang skismatik. Ada tertulis, “Tuhan menolak orang yang sombong”. Mari kita, dengan sungguh menghindari melawan uskup sehingga kita dapat tunduk kepada Tuhan.” (Letter to Ephesians, 3-5)

Origen (184-254):
“Bahkan jika seseorang dari mereka [yang di luar Gereja] ingin diselamatkan, biarlah ia datang ke rumah ini, sehingga ia dapat memperoleh keselamatan. Biarlah ia datang ke rumah ini, yang di dalamnya darah Kristus adalah tanda penebusan…. biarlah tak seorangpun menipu dirinya sendiri: [sebab] di luar rumah ini, yaitu di luar Gereja, tak seorangpun diselamatkan. Sebab mereka yang pergi ke luar, ia bertanggungjawab terhadap kematiannya sendiri.” (Homiliae in Jesu Nave 3:5; PG 12:841-42).

St. Cyprian (-258):
“Bagaimana mungkin seorang yang tidak bersama dengan Mempelai Kristus dan di dalam Gereja-Nya dapat ada bersama dengan Kristus?” (Epistle 52:1).

“Salus extra ecclesiam non est” /Tidak ada keselamatan di luar Gereja) (Epistle 72:21).

“Tidak, meskipun mereka harus menderita wafat demi pengakuan Nama-Nya, kesalahan orang-orang tersebut [yang memisahkan diri] tidak terhapus bahkan oleh darah mereka; dosa berat yang tak terhapuskan dari skisma tidak dapat dihapuskan bahkan oleh kemartiran… Tak seorangpun dapat mengklaim nama martir, mereka yang telah mematahkan kasihnya kepada saudara-saudaranya. Ini adalah ajaran Rasul Paulus, “Jika aku menyerahkan tubuhku untuk dibakar, namun aku tidak memiliki kasih, aku sama sekali tidak berguna.” (The Unity of the Catholic Church, 14)

“Ia tak dapat lagi memiliki Tuhan sebagai Bapa-Nya, yang tidak mempunyai Gereja sebagai ibunya; …. Siapapun yang menghancurkan damai dan harmoni Kristus, bertindak melawan Kristus; barang siapa mengumpulkan di tempat lain di luar Gereja, mencerai beraikan Gereja Kristus…. Jika seseorang tidak menjaga kesatuan ini, ia tidak menjaga hukum Tuhan, ia telah kehilangan iman akan Bapa, Putera dan ia telah kehilangan hidupnya dan jiwanya.” (The Unity of the Catholic Church, 6)

St. Agustinus (354-431)
“Kasih yang dibicarakan oleh Rasul Paulus: “Kasih Tuhan dicurahkan kepada kita oleh Roh Kudus yang dikaruniakan kepada kita” (Rom 5:5) adalah kasih yang tidak dimiliki oleh orang-orang yang terpisah dari persekutuan Gereja Katolik. Dan untuk alasan ini meskipun mereka dapat “berbicara dengan bahasa-bahasa manusia maupun malaikat” (1Kor 13:1-3), hal itu tak berguna baginya. Sebab orang yang tidak mengasihi kesatuan Gereja tidaklah memiliki kasih Tuhan…” (De Baptismo 3:10,13; CSEL 51:212)

“Seseorang tidak dapat memperoleh keselamatan, kecuali di dalam Gereja Katolik. Di luar Gereja Katolik ia dapat memperoleh apapun kecuali keselamatan. Ia dapat memperoleh kehormatan, sakramen-sakramen, ia dapat menyanyikan alleluia, ia dapat menjawab amen, ia dapat memiliki Injil, ia dapat berkhotbah tentang iman di dalam nama Allah Bapa dan Putera dan Roh Kudus, tetapi tidak ada tempat lain selain di dalam Gereja Katolik ia dapat menemukan keselamatan.” (Discourse to the People of the Church at Caesarea, 6)

“Kenyataan [bahwa seseorang] wafat di luar Gereja membuktikan bahwa ia tidak memiliki kasih.” (De Baptismo 4:17,24; CSEL 51:250)

“Mereka yang karena ketidaktahuannya, dibaptis di sana [di kelompok skismatik], dengan berpikir bahwa kelompok itu adalah gereja Kristus, melakukan kesalahan serius yang derajatnya lebih rendah jika dibandingkan dengan mereka [yang menyebabkan skisma]; namun demikian mereka juga terluka oleh sakrilegi skisma….” (De Baptismo 1:5,6; CSEL 51:152)

“Rasul Paulus mengatakan: “Seorang bidat yang sudah satu dua kali kaunasihati, hendaklah engkau jauhi.” (Tit 3:10). Tetapi mereka yang mempertahankan pandangan mereka, bagaimanapun salah dan menyimpangnya, namun tanpa berkeras dengan kehendak yang jahat, terutama mereka yang tidak memulai kesalahan [ajaran sesat] itu dengan praduga yang menentang ketentuan, tetapi yang menerimanya dari orang tua yang telah disesatkan dan telah menyimpang …. mereka yang mencari kebenaran dengan usaha yang sungguh-sungguh dan siap untuk dikoreksi ketika mereka telah menemukannya, tidak termasuk dalam golongan heretik/ bidat.” (Epistle 43:1; CSEL 34,2:85)

“Bukanlah masalah bahaya kehilangan emas atau perak, tanahmu atau peternakanmu atau kesehatan tubuhmu; kami memanggil jiwamu untuk meraih kehidupan kekal dan menghindari kematian kekal.” (Epistle 43:3,6; CSEL 34,2:88-89)

“Tetapi dapat terjadi beberapa dari orang-orang itu [yang sekarang terpisah] menjadi anggota kita di dalam rahasia pengetahuan Allah; adalah penting bahwa mereka harus kembali kepada kita. Betapa banyak mereka yang tidak menjadi anggota kita yang kelihatannya masih ‘di dalam’ dan betapa banyak orang yang menjadi anggota kita yang kelihatannya seperti ‘di luar’ kita. Dan mereka yang di dalam kita namun bukan anggota kita, ketika suatu kejadian terjadi, akan keluar; dan mereka yang menjadi anggota kita, tetapi sekarang berada ‘di luar’, ketika mereka memperoleh kesempatan, akan kembali.” (Enarr. in Psalms 106:14, CCL 40:1581)


Dasar dari Magisterium:

Paus St. Gregorius Agung (590-604), Moralia: “Kini Gereja universal yang kudus menyatakan bahwa Tuhan tidak dapat benar-benar disembah kecuali di dalam diri Gereja sendiri, sambil meneguhkan bahwa mereka semua yang tanpa Gereja tidak pernah dapat diselamatkan.”
Paus Sylvester II, Pernyataan Iman, 991: “Aku percaya bahwa di dalam Baptisan semua dosa diampuni, dosa asal maupun dosa pribadi, dan aku mengakui bahwa di luar Gereja Katolik tidak ada seorangpun diselamatkan.”

Paus Innocentius III, Konsili Lateran ke 4, 1215: “Hanya ada satu Gereja universal bagi umat beriman, yang di luarnya tak ada seorangpun diselamatkan.”
Paus Bonifasius VIII, Bulla Unam Sanctam, 1302: “Kami diharuskan karena iman kita untuk percaya dan melestarikan bahwa hanya ada satu Gereja Katolik yang kudus, dan [Gereja] itu bersifat apostolik. Ini kami percaya dengan teguh dan kami maklumkan tanpa kondisi persyaratan. Di luar Gereja ini tidak ada keselamatan dan penghapusan dosa…. [Gereja] yang menyatakan satu tubuh mistik yang kepalanya adalah Kristus, sungguh milik Kristus, sebagai Tuhan. Dan di dalam ini, “satu Tuhan, satu iman, satu baptisan (Ef 4:5). Tentulah Nabi Nuh mempunyai satu bahtera pada zaman air bah, yang melambangkan satu Gereja yang sempurna dalam satu ukuran dengan mempunyai seorang pengatur dan pembimbing, yaitu Nabi Nuh, yang di luarnya kita semua membaca, semua mahluk hidup dihancurkan …. Kami menyatakan, mengatakan, menetapkan, dan mengumumkan bahwa adalah mutlak penting bagi keselamatan setiap manusia untuk berada di bawah pengaturan Imam Agung Roma.”

Konsili Florence (1439): “Semua yang ada di luar Gereja Katolik … tidak dapat mengambil bagian di dalam kehidupan kekal …. kecuali mereka bergabung dengan Gereja Katolik sebelum hidup mereka berakhir…. tak seorangpun dapat diselamatkan, tak peduli berapa banyak ia memberi derma dan bahkan jika ia menumpahkan darahnya di dalam nama Kristus, kecuali ia tetap bertahan di dalam pangkuan dan kesatuan dalam Gereja Katolik.”

Paus Leo XII (1823-1829), surat ensiklik Ubi Primum: “Adalah tidak mungkin bagi Tuhan yang sangat benar –yang adalah Kebenaran itu sendiri, yang terbaik, Penyelenggara yang paling bijaksana, dan pemberi upah kepada orang-orang baik– untuk menyetujui semua sekte yang mengajarkan ajaran-ajaran sesat yang seringnya tidak konsisten satu sama lain dan saling bertentangan, dan untuk memberikan penghargaan kekal kepada anggota-anggotanya. Sebab kita mempunyai perkataan yang lebih pasti dari sang nabi, dan dengan menulis kepadamu, Kami membicarakan kebijaksanaan di antara yang sempurna; bukan kebijaksanaan dunia ini, tetapi kebijaksanaan Tuhan di dalam msiteri. Olehnya kami diajarkan dan oleh iman ilahi kami berpegang kepada satu Tuhan, satu iman, satu baptisan dan bahwa tidak ada nama lain di bawah kolong langit yang diberikan kepada manusia kecuali nama Yesus Kristus dari Nasareth yang di dalamnya kita diselamatkan. Inilah mengapa kami menyatakan bahwa tidak ada keselamatan di luar Gereja …. Sebab Gereja adalah tiang penopang dan dasar kebenaran. Dengan acuan kepada perkataan-perkataan St. Agustinus: “Jika seseorang ada di luar Gereja, ia tidak akan termasuk dalam bilangan anak-anak, dan tidak akan mempunyai Tuhan sebagai Bapa, sebab ia tidak mempunyai Gereja sebagai ibu.”

Paus Pius IX (1846-1878), Singulari Quadam, 1854: “Bukannya tanpa duka cita kami telah mengetahui bahwa kesalahan yang lain,…. telah diyakini oleh sebagian dunia Katolik, dan telah mengambil tempat kediaman di jiwa banyak umat Katolik, yang berpikir bahwa seseorang telah mempunyai pengharapan keselamatan kekal akan semua orang yang tidak pernah hidup di dalam Gereja Kristus yang sejati …. Tetapi sebagai tugas Apostolik Kami, kami mengharapkan agar kewaspadaan episkopal dibangkitkan, sehingga kamu akan bekerja keras semampumu, untuk mengenyahkan dari pikiran orang-orang yang tidak saleh dan pikiran yang sama fatalnya, yaitu bahwa jalan keselamatan kekal dapat ditemukan di agama manapun juga. Semoga kamu dapat membuktikan dengan kemampuan dan pengetahuan yang kamu sungguh kuasai, kepada orang-orang yang dipercayakan kepadamu, bahwa dogma iman Katolik tidaklah bertentangan dengan belas kasihan ilahi dan keadilan ilahi.”
“Sebab harus dipegang oleh iman bahwa di luar Gereja Roma yang Apostolik, tak seorangpun dapat diselamatkan; bahwa ini adalah satu-satunya bahtera keselamatan… tetapi, di sisi lain, juga perlu dipegang dengan yakin, bahwa mereka yang berkerja keras di dalam ketidaktahuan akan agama yang sejati, jika ketidaktahuan ini tidak terhindarkan (invincible), tidak akan dianggap bersalah tentang ini di mata Tuhan. Kini kenyataannya, siapa mau mengasumsikan begitu banyak menurut dirinya sendiri untuk menentukan batas-batas ketidaktahuan itu, oleh karena kodrat dan keberagaman bangsa, daerah, sikap batin, dan tentang begitu banyak hal lainnya? Sebab kenyataannya, ketika dibebaskan dari belenggu kesementaraan dunia, “kita akan melihat Tuhan sebagaimana adanya Ia” (1 Yoh 3:2), kita akan dengan sempurna memahami betapa dekat dan indahnya ikatan belas kasihan dan keadilan ilahi disatukan; tetapi selama kita berada di dunia, terbeban oleh  tubuh yang fana yang menumpulkan jiwa, biarlah kita memegang dengan sangat teguh bahwa sesuai dengan ajaran Katolik, terdapat “satu Tuhan, satu iman, satu baptisan” (Ef 4:5); adalah bertentangan dengan hukum untuk melanjutkan penyelidikan lebih jauh.”
“Tapi, seperti tuntutan jalan cinta kasih, marilah kita terus mengajukan doa-doa agar semua bangsa di manapun dapat menerima Kristus; dan mari kita mengarahkan perhatian kepada keselamatan bersama bagi manusia sesuai dengan kekuatan kita, “sebab tangan Tuhan tidak terlalu pendek” (Yes 9:1) dan karunia-karunia rahmat ilagi tidak akan kurang bagi mereka yang dengan tulus mengharapkan dan memohon agar disegarkan oleh terang ini.”

Paus Pius IX, Singulari Quidem, 1856: “Ajarkan bahwa sepertihalnya hanya ada satu Tuhan, satu Kristus dan satu Roh Kudus, maka hanya ada satu kebenaran yang diwahyukan secara ilahi. Hanya ada satu iman ilahi yang menjadi awal keselamatan bagi umat manusia dan dasar bagi semua justifikasi, iman yang olehnya orang benar hidup dan yang tanpanya tidak mungkin [seseorang] menyenangkan Tuhan dan masuk dalam komunitas anak-anak-Nya (Rom 1, Ibr 11, Konsili Trente, sesi 6, bab 8). Hanya ada satu Gereja yang sejati, kudus, Katolik, yaitu Gereja Roma yang Apostolik. Hanya ada satu Tahta yang didirikan di atas Petrus oleh sabda Tuhan (St. Cyprian, Epistle 43), yang di luarnya kita tidak dapat menemukan baik iman yang sejati ataupun keselamatan kekal. Ia yang tidak mempunyai Gereja sebagai ibu tidak dapat mempunyai Tuhan sebagai bapa dan siapapun yang mengabaikan Tahta Petrus yang di atasnya Gereja didirikan, salah percaya bahwa ia ada di dalam Gereja (ibid, On Unity of the Catholic Church)…. Di luar Gereja, tak seorangpun dapat berharap untuk hidup atau keselamatan, kecuali ia dibenarkan (excused) melalui ketidaktahuan yang di luar kendalinya.”

Paus Pius IX (1846-1878) Ensiklik Quanto conciamur moerore, 1863: “Dan di sini,…. Kami harus menyebutkan lagi dan mengecam kesalahan yang sangat berat di mana beberapa umat Katolik telah dengan salah memahami, yang percaya bahwa orang-orang yang hidup dalam kesesatan dan terpisah dari iman yang sejati dan kesatuan Katolik, dapat mencapai kehidupan kekal. Sungguh, ini jelas bertentangan dengan ajaran Katolik. Telah diketahui oleh Kami dan oleh kamu bahwa mereka yang berkerja keras di dalam ketidaktahuan yang tak terhindari (invincible ignorance) tentang agama kita yang tersuci dan yang dengan sungguh-sungguh menaati hukum kodrat dan ketentuannya yang diukirkan di dalam hati semua orang oleh Tuhan, dan yang siap sedia menaati Tuhan, yang hidup dalam kehidupan yang jujur dan lurus, dapat, dengan kuasa terang ilahi dan rahmat ilahi yang bekerja, memperoleh kehidupan kekal, sebab Tuhan yang dengan jelas melihat, menyelidiki, dan mengetahui pikiran-pikiran, jiwa, kebiasaan-kebiasaan semua manusia, oleh karena kebaikan-Nya dan belas kasih-Nya yang besar, tidak akan membuat seorangpun menderita untuk dihukum dengan siksa abadi, ia yang tidak bersalah karena dosa yang disengaja. Tetapi, dogma Katolik bahwa tak seorangpun dapat diselamatkan di luar Gereja Katolik telah dengan baik dikenal; dan juga bahwa mereka yang berkeras melawan otoritas dan ajaran-ajaran definitif Gereja yang sama, dan yang dengan keras kepala memisahkan diri mereka dari kesatuan dengan Gereja, dan dari Imam Agung Roma –penerus Rasul Petrus yang kepadanya ‘penjagaan pokok anggur telah dipercayakan oleh Sang Penyelamat’ (Konsili Kalsedon, Letter to Pope Leo I)– tidak dapat memperoleh keselamatan kekal. Perkataan Kristus cukup jelas, “Dan jika ia tidak mendengarkan jemaat, perlakukanlah ia sebagai seorang yang tidak mengenal Allah atau seorang pemungut cukai’ (Mat 18:17); ‘Ia yang mendengarkan kamu, mendengarkan Aku, dan ia yang menolak kamu, ia menolak Aku dan ia yang menolak Aku, menolak Bapa yang mengutus Aku’ (Luk 10:16); ‘Ia yang percaya tidak akan dihukum (Mrk 16:16); ‘Ia yang tidak percaya telah berada di bawah hukuman (Yoh 3:18)’ ‘Ia yang tidak bersama Aku, ia melawan Aku; dan ia yang tidak mengumpulkan bersama Aku, ia menceraiberaikan’ (Luk 11:23). Rasul Paulus mengatakan bahwa orang-orang seperti ini adalah ‘sesat dan dengan dosanya menghukum dirinya sendiri (Tit 3:11); Pemimpin para Rasul menyebutnya sebagai “nabi-nabi palsu … yang memasukkan pengajaran-pengajaran sesat yang membinasakan, dan menyangkal Tuhan yang menebus mereka: dan dengan jalan demikian segera mendatangkan kebinasaan atas diri mereka.” (2 Pet 2:1)
Konsili Vatikan I (1868-1870) – sebagaimana dikutip kembali dalam KGK 161: “Percaya akan Yesus Kristus dan akan Dia yang mengutus-Nya demi keselamatan kita adalah perlu supaya memperoleh keselamatan (Bdk. misalnya Mrk 16:16; Yoh 3:36; 6:40). “Karena tanpa iman tidak mungkin orang berkenan kepada Allah (Ibr 11:6) dan sampai kepada persekutuan anak-anak-Nya, maka tidak pernah seorang pun dibenarkan tanpa Dia, dan seorang pun tidak akan menerima kehidupan kekal, kalau ia tidak ‘bertahan sampai akhir’ (Mat 10:22; 24:13) dalam iman” (Konsili Vatikan I, Dei Filius 3, DS 3012, Bdk. Konsili Trente: DS 1532 )

Paus Leo XIII (1878-1903), Ensiklik Annum Ingressi Sumus: “Ini adalah pengajaran terakhir kami kepadamu; terimalah ini, ukirkanlah di dalam sanubarimu, semua dari kamu: oleh perintah Tuhan, keselamatan harus ditemukan tidak di manapun kecuali di dalam Gereja.”
Paus St. Pius X (1903-1914), Ensiklik Jucunda Sane: “Adalah tugas kami untuk mengingatkan setiap orang… sebagaiman dilakukan oleh Paus Gregorius di abad-abad lalu, kepentingan yang mutlek yang adalah milik kita, untuk berlindung di bawah Gereja ini untuk memperoleh keselamatan kekal kita.”

Paus St. Pius X (1903-1914), Ensiklik Jucunda Sane: “Adalah tugas kami untuk mengingatkan setiap orang… sebagaiman dilakukan oleh Paus Gregorius di abad-abad lalu, kepentingan yang mutlek yang adalah milik kita, untuk berlindung di bawah Gereja ini untuk memperoleh keselamatan kekal kita.”

Paus Pius XI (1922-1939), Ensiklik Mortalium Animos: “Hanya Gereja Katolik yang melestarikan penyembahan yang sejati. Ini adalah mata air kebenaran, ini adalah rumah iman, ini adalah bait kediaman Allah; jika seseorang tidak masuk ke sini, atau pergi meninggalkannya, ia menjadi orang asing bagi harapan akan hidup ilahi dan keselamatan …. Selanjutnya, di dalam satu Gereja Kristus, tak seorangpun dapat atau tetap tinggal [di dalamnya], yang tidak menerima atau mengenali dan menaati otoritas dan keutamaan Petrus dan para penerusnya yang sah.”

Paus Pius XII, 1943, menjelaskan maksud pernyataan Paus Bonifasius VIII ini dalam surat ensikliknya Mystici Corporis, demikian: “Tapi kita tidak boleh berpikir bahwa Ia [Kristus] memerintah hanya secara tersembunyi atau hanya dengan cara yang luar biasa. Sebaliknya, Penebus kita juga memerintah Tubuh Mistik-Nya di dalam cara yang kelihatan dan normal melalui Wakil-Nya di dunia. Kamu mengetahui, saudara-saudaraku yang terhormat, bahwa setelah Ia sendiri memerintah “kawanan kecil” sepanjang perjalanan hidupnya di dunia, Kristus Tuhan kita, ketika hampir meninggalkan dunia ini dan kembali kepada Bapa, mempercayakan kepada Pimpinan para Rasul pemerintahan yang kelihatan akan keseluruhan komunitas yang telah didirikan-Nya. Karena Ia sepenuhnya bijaksana, Ia tidak dapat meninggalkan tubuh Gereja yang didirikan-Nya sebagai perkumpulan manusia tanpa kepala yang kelihatan (visible head). Tidak juga melawan ini, seseorang dapat berargumen bahwa keutamaan otoritas kepemimpinan yang didirikan di Gereja, memberikan kepada Tubuh Mistik Kristus dua buah kepala. Sebab keutamaan Petrus adalah hanya [sebagai] wakil Kristus; sehingga hanya ada satu Kepala pemimpin di dalam Tubuh ini, yaitu Kristus, yang tidak pernah berhenti untuk membimbing Gereja secara tidak kelihatan, meskipun pada saat yang sama Ia mengatur secara kelihatan, melalui dia yang menjadi wakil-Nya di dunia. Setelah Kenaikan-Nya yang mulia ke Surga, Gereja ini tidak hanya berdiri di atas Dia sendiri, tetapi di atas Petrus, juga, sebagai batu pondasi yang kelihatan. Bahwa Kristus dan wakil-Nya membentuk hanya satu Kepala adalah ajaran agung dari Pendahulu Kami yang kenangannya tetap hidup, Paus Bonifasius VIII dalam surat Apostoliknya Unam Sanctam, dan para penerusnya telah tidak berhenti mengulangi yang sama (Mystici Corporis 40).
Oleh karena itu, mereka berjalan di jalur kesalahan yang berbahaya, [yaitu mereka] yang percaya bahwa mereka dapat menerima Kristus sebagai Kepala Gereja, namun tidak melekat secara setia kepada Wakil-Nya di dunia. Mereka telah mengesampingkan kepala yang kelihatan, memecahkan ikatan-ikatan kesatuan yang kelihatan dan meninggalkan Tubuh Mistik Sang Penebus sedemikian samar-samar dan cacat, sehingga mereka yang mencari tempat pelabuhan keselamatan kekal tidak dapat melihatnya ataupun menemukannya….” (Mystici Corporis 41)
“…. mereka yang tidak menjadi bagian dalam Tubuh Gereja Katolik yang kelihatan…. Kami memohon kepada setiap orang dari mereka untuk menanggapi gerakan-gerakan rahmat di dalam batin, dan untuk menarik diri dari keadaan tersebut, di mana mereka tidak dapat menjamin keselamatan mereka (lih. Pius XI, Iam Vos Omnes, 1868). Sebab meskipun oleh hasrat yang tak disadari dan kerinduan untuk memiliki hubungan tertentu dengan Tubuh Mistik Penebus, mereka tetap kurang dapat memperoleh banyaknya karunia dan pertolongan surgawi yang dapat diterima hanya di dalam Gereja Katolik.” (Mystici Corporis, 103)

Katekismus Gereja Katolik: KGK 846-848, 836-838 :

KGK 846    Bagaimana dapat dimengerti ungkapan ini yang sering kali diulangi oleh para bapa Gereja? Kalau dirumuskan secara positif, ia mengatakan bahwa seluruh keselamatan datang dari Kristus sebagai Kepala melalui Gereja, yang adalah Tubuh-Nya:
“Berdasarkan Kitab Suci dan Tradisi, konsili mengajarkan, bahwa Gereja yang sedang mengembara ini perlu untuk keselamatan. Sebab hanya satulah Pengantara dan jalan keselamatan, yakni Kristus. Ia hadir bagi kita dalam Tubuh-Nya, yakni Gereja. Dengan jelas-jelas menegaskan perlunya iman dan baptis, Kristus sekaligus menegaskan perlunya Gereja, yang dimasuki orang melalui baptis bagaikan pintunya. Maka dari itu andaikata ada orang, yang benar-benar tahu, bahwa Gereja Katolik itu didirikan oleh Allah melalui Yesus Kristus sebagai upaya yang perlu, namun tidak mau masuk ke dalamnya atau tetap tinggal di dalamnya, ia tidak dapat diselamatkan” (Lumen Gentium 14).

KGK 847    Penegasan ini tidak berlaku untuk mereka, yang tanpa kesalahan sendiri tidak mengenal Kristus dan Gereja-Nya:
“Sebab mereka yang tanpa bersalah tidak mengenal Injil Kristus serta Gereja-Nya, tetapi dengan hati tulus mencari Allah, dan berkat pengaruh rahmat berusaha melaksanakan kehendak-Nya yang mereka kenal melalui suara hati dengan perbuatan nyata, dapat memperoleh keselamatan kekal” (Lumen Gentium 16; Bdk. DS 3866 – 3872).

KGK 848    “Meskipun Allah melalui jalan yang diketahui-Nya dapat menghantar manusia, yang tanpa bersalah tidak mengenal Injil, kepada iman yang merupakan syarat mutlak untuk berkenan kepada-Nya, namun Gereja mempunyai keharusan sekaligus juga hak yang suci, untuk mewartakan Injil” (Ad Gentes 7) kepada semua manusia.

KGK 836    “Jadi kepada kesatuan katolik Umat Allah itulah, yang melambangkan dan memajukan perdamaian semesta, semua orang dipanggil. Mereka termasuk kesatuan itu atau terarah kepadanya dengan aneka cara, baik kaum beriman katolik, umat lainnya yang beriman akan Kristus, maupun semua orang tanpa kecuali, yang karena rahmat Allah dipanggil kepada keselamatan” (LG 13).

KGK 837    Dimasukkan sepenuhnya ke dalam serikat Gereja mereka, yang mempunyai Roh Kristus, menerima baik seluruh tata susunan Gereja serta semua upaya keselamatan yang diadakan di dalamnya, dan dalam himpunannya yang kelihatan digabungkan dengan Kristus yang membimbingnya melalui Imam Agung dan para Uskup, dengan ikatan-ikatan ini, yakni: pengakuan iman, Sakramen-sakramen dan kepemimpinan gerejani serta persekutuan. Tetapi tidak diselamatkan orang, yang meskipun termasuk anggota Gereja namun tidak bertambah dalam cinta kasih; jadi yang dengan badan memang berada dalam pangkuan Gereja, melainkan tidak dengan hatinya” (LG 14).

KGK 838    “Gereja tahu, bahwa karena banyak alasan ia berhubungan dengan mereka, yang karena dibaptis mengemban nama Kristen, tetapi tidak mengakui ajaran iman seutuhnya atau tidak memelihara kesatuan persekutuan di bawah pengganti Petrus” (LG 15). “Siapa yang percaya kepada Kristus, dan menerima Pembaptisan dengan baik, berada dalam semacam persekutuan dengan Gereja Katolik, walaupun tidak sempurna” (UR 3). Persekutuan dengan Gereja-gereja Ortodoks begitu mendalam “bahwa mereka hanya kekurangan sedikit saja untuk sampai kepada kepenuhan yang membenarkan satu perayaan bersama Ekaristi Tuhan” (Paulus VI, Wejangan 14 Desember 1975 Bdk. UR 13-18).

Konsili Vatikan II, Konstitusi tentang Gereja, Lumen Gentium: LG 14 dan 16, sebagaimana telah disampaikan di kutipan Katekismus di atas.

Konsili Vatikan II, Dekrit tentang Ekumenisme, Unitatis Redintegratio, 3, “Dalam satu dan satu-satunya Gereja Allah itu sejak awal mula telah timbul berbagai perpecahan, yang oleh Rasul dikecam dengan tajam sebagai hal yang layak di hukum. Dalam abad-abad sesudahnya timbullah pertentangan-pertentangan yang lebih luas lingkupnya, dan jemaat-jemaat yang cukup besar terpisahkan dari persekutuan sepenuhnya dengan Gereja Katolik, yang seringnya karena kesalahan orang- orang di kedua belah pihak. Tetapi mereka, yang sekarang lahir dan di besarkan dalam iman akan Kristus di jemaat-jemaat itu, tidak dapat dipersalahkan dan dianggap berdosa karena memisahkan diri. Gereja Katolik merangkul mereka dengan sikap bersaudara penuh hormat dan cinta kasih. Sebab mereka itu, yang beriman akan Kristus dan dibaptis secara sah, berada dalam suatu persekutuan dengan Gereja Katolik, meskipun persekutuan ini tidak sempurna. Perbedaan- perbedaan yang ada dalam derajat yang berbeda di antara mereka dan Gereja Katolik-  baik perihal ajaran dan ada kalanya juga dalam tata-tertib, maupun mengenai tata-susunan Gereja, memang menciptakan banyak hambatan, kadang menjadi hambatan yang serius, terhadap persekutuan gerejawi yang penuh. Gerakan ekumenis bertujuan mengatasi hambatan-hambatan itu. Sungguhpun begitu, karena mereka dalam Baptis dibenarkan berdasarkan iman, mereka disaturagakan dalam Kristus. Oleh karena itu mereka memang dengan tepat menyandang nama Kristen, dan tepat pula oleh putera-puteri Gereja katolik diakui selaku saudara-saudari dalam Tuhan.Kecuali itu, dari unsur-unsur atau nilai-nilai, yang keseluruhannya ikut berperanan dalam pembangunan serta kehidupan Gereja sendiri, beberapa bahkan banyak sekali yang sangat berharga, yang dapat ditemukan diluar kawasan Gereja katolik yang kelihatan: Sabda Allah dalam Kitab Suci, kehidupan rahmat, iman, harapan dan cinta kasih, begitu pula kurnia-kurnia Roh Kudus lainnya yang bersifat batiniah dan unsur-unsur lahiriah. Itu semua bersumber pada Kristus dan mengantar kepada-Nya, dan memang selayaknya menjadi milik Gereja Kristus yang tunggal.
Tidak sedikit pula upacara-upacara agama kristen, yang diselenggarakan oleh saudara-saudari yang tercerai dari kita. Upacara-upacara itu dengan pelbagai cara dan menurut bermacam-ragam situasi masing-masing gereja dan jemaat sudah jelas memang dapat menyalurkan hidup rahmat yang sesungguhnya, dan harus diakui dapat membuka pintu memasuki persekutuan keselamatan.

Oleh karena itu Gereja-Gereja dan Jemaat-Jemaat yang terpisah, walaupun menurut pandangan kita diwarnai oleh kekurangan-kekurangan, sama sekali bukannya tidak berarti atau bernilai dalam misteri keselamatan. Sebab Roh Kristus tidak menolak untuk menggunakan mereka sebagai upaya-upaya keselamatan, yang kekuatannya bersumber pada kepenuhan rahmat serta kebenaran dalam arti yang sepenuhnya, yang dipercayakan kepada Gereja Katolik.

Akan tetapi saudara-saudari yang tercerai dari kita, baik secara perorangan maupun sebagai komunitas dan Gereja, tidak menikmati kesatuan, yang oleh Yesus Kristus hendak dikurniakan kepada mereka semua, yang telah dilahirkan-Nya kembali dan dihidupkan-Nya untuk menjadi satu tubuh, bagi kehidupan yang serba baru, menurut kesaksian Kitab Suci dan tradisi Gereja yang terhormat. Sebab hanya melalui Gereja Kristus yang Katoliklah, yakni upaya umum untuk keselamatan, dapat dicapai seluruh kepenuhan upaya-upaya penyelamatan. Sebab kita percaya, bahwa hanya kepada Dewan Para Rasul yang diketuai oleh Petruslah Tuhan telah mempercayakan segala harta Perjanjian Baru, untuk membentuk satu Tubuh kristus di dunia. Dalam tubuh itu harus disaturagakan sepenuhnya siapa saja, yang dengan suatu cara telah termasuk umat Allah. Selama berziarah di dunia, umat itu, meskipun dalam para anggotanya tetap tidak terluputkan dari dosa, berkembang dalam Kristus, dan secara halus dibimbing oleh Allah, menurut rencana-Nya yang penuh rahasia, sampai akhirnya penuh kegembiraan meraih seluruh kepenuhan kemuliaan kekal di kota Yerusalem sorgawi.”

Paus Yohanes Paulus II, dengan otoritas apostolik menyetujui Deklarasi Dominus Iesus, 2000, yang menyimpulkan:

“Di atas segalanya, haruslah diimani dengan teguh bahwa “Gereja yang sedang mengembara ini perlu untuk keselamatan. Sebab hanya satulah Pengantara dan jalan keselamatan, yakni Kristus. Ia hadir bagi kita dalam tubuh-Nya, yakni Gereja. Dengan jelas-jelas menegaskan perlunya iman dan baptis (lih. Mrk 16:16; Yoh 3:5). Kristus sekaligus menegaskan perlunya Gereja, yang dimasuki orang-orang melalui baptis bagaikan pintunya’. Ajaran ini harus tidak ditempatkan berlawanan dengan kehendak keselamatan Tuhan yang bersifat universal: Gereja yang satu adalah pengantara dan jalan keselamatan (cf. 1 Tim 2:4); “Adalah penting untuk menjaga dua kebenaran ini bersama-sama, yaitu, kemungkinan yang nyata akan keselamatan di dalam Kristus untuk semua umat manusia dan pentingnya Gereja untuk keselamatan ini.”
Gereja adalah “sakramen keselamatan bagi semua orang”, karena, selalu bersatu secara misterius dengan Sang Juru Selamat Yesus Kristus, Kepalanya, dan tunduk kepada-Nya, ia mempunyai, di dalam rencana Tuhan, sebuah hubungan yang sangat diperlukan dengan keselamatan setiap manusia. Bagi mereka yang bukan merupakan anggota resmi dan yang kelihatan (visible) dari Gereja, “keselamatan di dalam Kristus dicapai dengan kebajikan rahmat, yang ketika mempunyai hubungan yang misterius dengan Gereja, tidak membuat mereka secara resmi bagian dari Gereja, tetapi [rahmat ini] menerangi mereka di dalam cara yang diakomodasikan dengan situasi rohani dan jasmani mereka. Rahmat ini datang dari Kristus; rahmat ini adalah hasil dari kurban-Nya dan disampaikan oleh Roh Kudus”; ia [rahmat ini] mempunyai sebuah hubungan dengan Gereja, yang “berasal dari perutusan Putera dan perutusan Roh Kudus menurut rencana Allah Bapa” (Dominus Iesus, 20)

*FIK

Katedral: Tempat Surga dan Bumi Bertemu

Katedral: Tempat Surga dan Bumi Bertemu

Part I:

“ Uskupmu memimpin dengna duduk di tempat Allah” – St. Ignatius dari Anthiokia, Surat kepada Jemaat di Magnesia no. 6, 107 M
Ini adalah cuplikan surat St. Ignatius sebwaktu para serdadu kaisar memindahkan uskup ini dari keuskupannya di Syria untuk menjalani hukumannya di Roma. 

Apakah yang dimaksud St. Ignatius dgn “ duduk di tempat Allah”, apakah ini “tempat” dalam arti lokasi atau berarti kehadiran atau pendampingan Allah?

Prof. Scott Hahn melakukan penelusuran dengan mengecek ke teks Yunani dan dia mendapatkan jawaban: kedua-duanya. 

Untuk “tempat”, sejumlah manuskrip kuno menggunakan kata Yunani topos (lokasi) sedangkan yang lain menggunakan kata typos (wakil). – Surat St. Klemens dari Roma dan St. Ignatius dari Anthiokia

Hampir dipastikan, kita tidak tahu mana yang digunakan oleh St. Ignatius, maka dengan berserah kepada penyelenggaraan ilahi pemilihan akan dijatuhkan pada kata “typos”, seandainya salah, ia adalah kesalahan yang membahagiakan dari sejumlah penyalin yang tidak diketahui namanya. 

Kedua makna diatas tidak dapat dipisahkan. Uskup memimpin jemaat sebagai wakil Allah di suatu keuskupan tertentu. Dan Uskup memimpin jemaat sebagai wakil Allah di dalam rumah Allah – yakni dalam Bait KudusNya – yang adalah Katedral.  Kiranya mustahil berbicara mengenai katedral sebagai rumah Allah tanpa bicara mengenai Uskup sebagai gambaran dari ke-bapa-an Allah di bumi. 

Kata Katedral memiliki asal-usul biblis yang kaya. Kata ini berasal dari kathedra (=tahta kehormatan) dan muncul dalam edisi Septuaginta (PL versi Yunani). Hanya satu kali Yesus menggunakan kata kathedra dalam arti ini, tapi pilihanNya sangat penting, 

“Ahli-ahli Taurat dan orang-orang Farisi telah menduduki kursi Musa (kathedra Mouseos). Sebab itu turutilah dan lakukanlah segala sesuatu yang mereka ajarkan padamu” – Mat 23:2-3

Disini, kathedra merupakan tempat duduk yang mengungkapkan wewenang di bidang agama dan moral; dari sana orang-orang bijaksana menyampaikan pengajaran dan pedoman hidup. 

Alexander Sand (pakar Jerman) menuliskan bahwa sebagai tahta kebijaksanaan: “kathedra Mouseos” merupakan salah satu perabot permanent dari sinagoga…. Kathedra ini merupakan tempat duduk para ahli kitab dan orang Farisi waktu mereka menyampaikan ajaran resmi…. Ajaran mereka mengikat seluruh bangsa.
(Alexander Sand, “Kathedra”, Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament, jilid 2, Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans Publising, 1991, 221)

Dari sini terlihat Yesus membedakan “kursi pengajaran” dari kursi-kursi lain yang hanya merupakan kursi kehormatan; untuk kursi kehormatan ini Yesus menggunakan kata yang berbeda, meskipun terkait dengan kata Yunani kathedra (lihat Mat 23:5, protokathedriai).

Di kalangan para penutur Yunani yang lebih luas, kathedra berarti kursi dari mana pada ahli filsafat mengajar murid-murid mereka. Dengan demikian, entah Yahudi atau Yunani, orang yang menduduki kathedra diakui sebagai guru dan pemandu masyarakat. 

Dalam menetapkan perjanjian baru, Yesus tidak menghapuskan perjanjian lama atau struktur perjanjiannya. Yesus menerapkan pada diriNya sendiri peran dari para guru dan imam Israel, para nabi dan raja; dan peran itu Ia delegasikan kepada para rasulNya. Meskipun kathedra itu lebih tinggi dari semua kursi kehormatan yang lain, Yesus memberikan kepada kedua belas rasulNya sesuatu yang lebih tinggil lagi. 

Yesus berkata, “ Aku berkata kepadamu: Sungguh, pada waktu penciptaan kembali, apabila Anak Manusia bersemayam di tahta kemuliaanNya, kamu, yang telah mengikuti Aku, akan duduk di atas dua belas tahta untuk menghakimi kedua belas suku Israel” (Mat 19:28). Kepada mereka, Yesus menjanjikan tahta (thronoi), yakni kursi pengadilan yang cocok untuk para raja. 

Para rasul akan menduduki tahta-tahta yang tinggi ini, tetapi mereka menyebut kedudukan mereka dengan menggunakan kata yang lebih mengungkapkan jabatan, yaitu episkope, yang dalam terjemahan Inggris kuno diterjemahkan menjadi “bishopric” (=keusukupan), meskipun secara harafiah kata itu berarti “jabatan” (Kis1:20). Secara sederhana, pemegang jabatan itu disebut “pejabat” atau “penilik” – episkopos (Yunani). Dari sini kita memperoleh kata Inggris “episcopacy” (=keuskupan).

Para pengemban jabatan ini, misalnya Timotius (1Tim 3:1), menerima jabatan atau pengangkatan mereka dari tangan para rasul sendiri. Kemudian, masing-masing di kotanya, mereka akan menduduki kathedra yang lebih tinggi daripada Kursi Musa. Seperti dikatakan oleh St. Ignatius, mereka akan “memimpin jemaat dengan duduk di tempat Allah”.

Part II

Penggalian-penggalian arkeologis telah menemukan banyak gereja-gereja milik jemaat Kristiani awal berdampingan dengan sinagoga-sinagoga Yahudi.
(Penggalian di Dura Europos, lihat Jack Finergan - Light from the Ancient Past, Princeton, N.J: Princeton University,1946—403.

Dalam desain dan dekorasi, keduanya mirip satu sama lain. Jemaat Kristen awal mempertahankan kathedra sebagai suatu perabot permanen dalam tempat-tempat ibadah mereka.
(Kemiripan rumah ibadah Kristiani dan Yahudi, lihat Rodney Stark, The Rise of Christianity – San Francisco: HarperCollins,1997—68-69)

Kursi ini diduduki oleh uskup; tahta ini mengungkapkan wewenangnya untuk mengajar, memimpin dan menguduskan. Sepanjang masa para Bapa Gereja—dan malah di seluruh dunia Kristiani—Uskup berkotbah tidak dari mimbar, tetapi dari kathedra-nya; di sana, selama berkotbah, ia tetap duduk. Dalam bahasa Latin ditulis cathedra dan tetap dipertahankan untuk mengungkapkan jabatan uskup dan wewenangnya dan (tentu saja) untuk menyebut gerejanya, yakni katedral, gereja dimana biasanya ia menyampaikan ajaran, kotbah dan berkat liturgis.
(Mengenai kursi kehormatan dalam kedua rumah ibadat: sinagoga dan gereja, lihat Steven J. Schloeder, Architecture in Communion – San Francisco: Ignatius, 1998—86. Lihat juga Louis Bouyer, Liturgy and Architecture – Notre Dame: Notre Dame University Press,1967—25-26, 32-34, 43-45.

Pemahaman Gereja mengenai tugas Uskup sudah mantap sejak masa yang sangat awal. Masa hidup St. Ignatius sebagian bersamaan dengan masa hidup para rasul. Ia adalah pengganti St. Petrus, yang kedua atau yang ketiga sebagai Uskup Anthiokia dan tradisi meyakini bahwa ia adalah muris St. Yohanes Rasul. Karena memiliki hubungan yang begitu dekat dengan para rasul, St. Ignatius merasa wajib menjaga dan membela keluhuran tugas rasuli yang ia emban.

"Hendaknya kita memandang uskup seperti kita memandang Tuhan sendiri” – St. Ignatius, Surat kepada jemaat di Efesus, no. 6
Kalau Uskup berdiri di tempat Tuhan, maka orang-orang Kristiani hendaknya berdiri bersama dia, “karena semua yang menjadi milik Allah dan milik Yesus Kristus juga menjadi milik uskup” – St. Ignatius, Surat kepada jemaat di Filadelfia, no. 3

Di dalam gereja uskup, jemaat berdiri di dekat dia, biasanya di depan kathedra-nya. Pada masa St. Ignatius, uskuplah pelayan yang lazim untuk sakramen-sakramen. Di lingkungan Gereja Anthiokia, para imam (=presbyteroi, Yun; priest, Ing) dan para diakon (=diakonoi, Yun; deacon, Ing) mengemban peran yang menonjol seperti dalam Gereja Perjanjian Baru pada zaman para rasul. Tetapi, kalau para imam dan para diakon itu memimpin perayaan sakramen, mereka selalu bertindak sebagai delegatus/utusan uskup.

“ Dalam kaitan dengan Gereja, janganlah seorangpun melakukan sesuatu tanpa uskup. Suatu perayaan Ekaristi hanya dianggap sah kalau dipimpin oleh uskup atau oleh orang yang diserahi tugas itu oleh uskup. Dimanapun uskup tampil, disana hendaknya berhimpun jemaat – sama seperti dimana Yesus Kristus hadir, disitu hadir juga Gereja Katholik. Tanpa persetujuan uskup, tidaklah sah menyelenggarakan pembaptisan atau agape. Sebaliknya, apapun yang disahkan oleh uskup berkenan pada Allah. “
St. Ignatius, Surat kepada jemaat di Smyrna, no. 8
Sudah menjadi kebiasaan bagi uskup untuk merayakan liturgi Gereja setempat dibantu oleh semua klerusnya, dan dikelilingi oleh jemaat kaum beriman yang sudah dibaptis di kota itu. Perayaan seperti ini, oleh Ignatius disebut “harmoni ilahi.”, sebab di istu tertata rapi ketiga jenjang klerus:
1.   “Uskupmu duduk di tahta Allah,
2.   dan para imammu duduk di kursi dewan para rasul,
3.   didampingi oleh para diakonmu”
Perayaan ini merupakan peristiwa “ilahi”, sebab ia mencerminkan apa yang terjadi di surga. Sudah lama para komentator mencatat kemiripan antara liturgi yang dilukiskan oleh St. Iganatius dan pemandangan yang dilukiskan oleh St. Yohanes Rasul dalam kitab Wahyu. Dalam penglihatan St. Yohanes Rasul, ia menyaksikan dua puluh empat tua-tua (=presbyteroi, priest, imam) berdiri dalam barisan setengah lingkaran mengelilingi tahta Allah, dan bersama mereka bergabung juga banyak makhluk saleh yang melambungkan pujian, “ Kudus, kudus, kuduslah Tuhan Allah segala Kuasa”
(Why 4: bk. Dom Gregory Dix, The Shape of the Liturgy—New York: Seabury,1982—28f. Lihat juga Didascalia Apostolorum: “Dan untuk para imam hendaknya disediakan tempat khusus di sisi timur rumah ibadat, dan di tengah mereka hendaknya ditempatkan kursi uskup”. Didascalia Apostolorum dalam bahasa Syria, edisi dan terjemahan A. Voobus—Louvain: CSCO,1979—no. 130-131. Lihat juga Scott Hahn, The Lamb’s Supper—New York: Doubleday,1999. Terjemahan Indonesia: Perjamuan Anak Domba, Malang: Dioma, 2007)

Jadi, sebagaimana Allah memimpin liturgi di surga, dikelilingi oleh para rasul dan para kudusNya, demikian pula uskup memimpini di bumi dengan duduk “di tahta Allah”, dikelilingi oleh para klerus dan jemaatnya.

Bagi St. Ignatius dan St. Yohanes, tidak ada dua liturgi tapi hanya ada satu liturgi. Ini merupakan ajaran penting yang membedakan kekristenan awal dari Yudaisme zaman Bait Allah kedua dan agama Israel awal.  Umat Israel kuno memandang liturgi mereka yang di bumi sebagai tiruan liturgi surgawi yang diilhamkan oleh Allah.

Baik Musa maupun Salomo membangun tempat kediaman Allah di bumi—kemah suci dan Bait Allah—seturut pola dasar surgawi yang diwahyukan oleh Allah sendiri (Kel 25:8-9, 1Taw 28:19, Keb9:8). Keyakinan ini diungkapkan oleh para nabi secara mistik, ketika mereka melukiskan bagaimana para malaikat beribadat di tengah nyanyian dan pujian yang terdengar jelas datang dari Bait Allah di Yerusalem (Yes 6:1-7). Madah yang dilambungkan oleh para malaikat adalah nyanyian yang sama yang dilagukan oleh para Lewi di depan ruang mahakudus di bumi. Apa yang dilakukan oleh para imam di ruang mahakudus Bait Allah di bumi adalah tiruan atas apa yang dilakukan oleh para malaikat di surga.
Tetapi, ibadat di bumi itu hanyalah bayangan dari ibadat para malaikat—dan hanyalah bayangan dari ibadat yagn akan disahkan pada zaman Mesias.
Dengan menggunakan tubuh insani, Putra Allah yang kekal telah membawa surga turun ke bumi. Umat Allah tidak lagi beribadat dengan meniru ibadat para malaikat. Dalam liturgi PB, Kristus sendiri yang memimpin liturgi itu, kita tidak hanya meniru para malaikat, tetapi bersama mereka, kita ambil bagian dalam liturgi surgawi.

Inilah yang dilihat St. Ignatius dari kathedra di dalam Gerejanya di Anthiokia dan inilah yang ia lukiskan dalam Surat kepada Jemaat di Magnesia. Dan lebih dari itu, itulah yang dilaksanakan oleh para uskup dewasa ini apabila mereka memimpin dengan duduk “di tahta Allah” dalam liturgi surga dan bumi.

Uskup Agung Wina, Kardinal Christoph Schonborn, menulis: “ Dalam perayaan Ekaristi, surga turun ke bumi, dan Gereja di bumi menengadah, membuka diri kea rah rumah surgawinya”
(Living the Catechism of the Catholic Church, jilid 2: The Sacraments, terjemahan John Saward—San Francisco: Ignatius, 2000—100)

Part III:

Sesudah eksodus dari Mesir (bangsa Israel mengembara di padang gurun), Allah memberikan kepada Musa “contoh kemah suci dan contoh segala perabotnya” (Kel 25:9). Dengan mengikuti contoh itu, Musa memerintahkan pembangunan Kemah Suci, tempat kehadiran Allah di tengah umat pilihanNya, yang dapat dibawa kemana-mana. Berabad kemudian, di Yerusalem, Allah memberikan kepada Daud “rancangan Bait Suci dan ruang-ruangnya, yakni kamar perbendaharaan, kamar-kamar atas dan kamar-kamar dalam serta rancangan untuk tahta kerahiman” (1 Taw28:11). Kepada Raja Salomo, putranya, Allah memberikan wewenang untuk menyebut Bait SuciNya itu dengan dengan “rumah Tuhan” dan “rumah Allah” (1Taw28:20-21).

Orang-orang Kristiani awal melihat Kemah Suci dan Bait Allah itu sebagai “gambaran” biblis yang melukiskan Gereja Kristiani masa depan. Baik Kemah Suci maupun Bait Allah adalah tempat ibadah di bumi yang akan memperoleh penggenapannya dalam ibadat surga dan bumi yang secara terinci kita temukan di dalam buku-buku PB, yakni Surat kepada Orang Ibrani (Ibr 8-10) dan Kitab Wahyu (Why 11:19). Gereja yang sedang beribadat mencakup realitas yang oleh orang-orang Katholik, secara tradisional, disebut Gereja yang Berjuang (Gereja yang dibumi), Gereja yang Jaya (di surga) dan Gereja yang Menderita (di api penyucian).

Apabila orang-orang Kristiani awal berbicara mengenai Gereja, yang mereka maksudkan bukan hanya Gereja Universal yang dilihat secara keseluruhan, tetapi juga Gereja Partikular yakni komunitas setempat bahkan juga setiap bangunan Gereja. Sebab, setiap altar adalah tempat dimana surga turun menyentuh bumi (dalam perayaan Ekaristi).
Sejumlah Gereja Kristiani Timur—yang tetap melestarikan banyak kosa kata Kristiani awal—gereja-gereja masih disebut “Bait Kudus” (istilah ini juga akan ditemukan dalam prasasti-prasasti yang tertulis pada gereja-gereja tua di Roma).

Bagi orang-orang kristiani awal, uskup “memimpin dengan duduk di tahta Allah”, artinya di rumah Allah yang di bumi, di bait kudusNya yang di bumi ini, dalam ibadat, disatukan dengan bait kudus di surga.

Dalam Didascalia Apostolorum (Pengajaran Para Rasul) +/- abad ketiga atau empat, telah mewariskan kepada kita suatu teologi biblis yang mendalam mengenai peran uskup dalam Gereja Allah:

“Sekarang, hai para uskup, kamu adalah imam-imam bagi umatmu; kamu adalah para Lewi yang melayani Kemah Suci Allah, yakni Gereja Katholik yang kudus, yang terus menerus berdiri di hadirat Tuhan Allah. Maka bagi umatmu, kamu adalah imam dan nabi, pangeran, pemimpin dan raja, pengantara antara Allah dan umatNya dan orang-orang yang mengenal Kitab Suci dan ucapan-ucapan Allah; kamu adalah saksi dari kehendak Allah, yang menanggung dosa semua orang dan harus memberikan jawaban kepada semua orang… Sebagaimana kamu telah merengkuh beban semua orang, demikian pula buah-buah yang kamu terima dari seluruh umat akan menjadi milikmu, untuk memenuhi segala sesuatu yang kamu butuhkan. Rawatlah baik-baik mereka berkekurangan, seolah-olah kamu harus memberikan pertanggungjawaban kepada Dia yang akan menuntutnya; Dia tidak mungkin melakukan kesalahan dan tidak dapat dihindarkan. Karena, sebagaimana kamu melayani keuskupan, demikianlah – dari pelayanan kepada keuskupan ini – kamu berhak memperoleh perawatan, seperti para imam, para Lewi dan para pelayan yang melayani di hadapan Allah, sebagaimana tertulis dalam Kitab Bilangan” – DA no. 8

Para Uskup harus membimbing, memperlengkapi, mengajar, merawat, menjadi perantara, menerima penghormatan serta penghargaan dan mengemban tanggung jawab untuk jemaat mereka. Singkatnya, mereka harus memainkan peran sebagai seorang ayah dalam suatu keluarga.

Gagasan ini berakar kuat dalam PL. Pada masa para Bapa Bangsa (Nuh, Abraham, Yakub) tidak ada kelas kelompok imami. Dalam setiap keluarga seorang ayah berperan sebagai imam, pemimpin doa dank urban, guru dan pengantara. Tatanan keluarga kudus ini masih tetap bertahan selama masa perbudakan di Mesir dan pengembaraan di padang gurun. Para bapa Israel baru kehilangan hak khusus ini ketika mereka jatuh dalam dosa yang keji karena menyembah anak lembu emas. Waktu itu hanya suku Lewi yang tetap setia kepada Allah dan karena itu hanya merekalah yang tetap mempertahankan martabat imamat.  Tetapi, sesudah itupun, fungsi imamat tetap menjadi bagian dari fungsi seorang bapa keluarga.

Dalam kitab Hakim-hakim, kita temuka bahwa ketika seorang Lewi tampak berdiri di muka pintu Mikha, ia memohon “tinggallah padaku dan jadilah bapa serta imam bagiku” (Hak17:10). Satu bab kemudian, hampir kata demi kata, permohonan Mikha digemakan oleh salah seorang dari suku Dan, “ikutlah kami dan jadilah bapa serta imam kami.” (Hak18:19). Panggilan itu terus bergema dalam hati orang-orang Kristiani awal.

Dengan duduk di tahta Allah, seorang uskup tidak bisa tidak adalah seorang bapa, sebab jati diri Allah adalah “Bapa” dan yang dikerjakan Allah adalah pekerjaan seorang Bapa. St. Ignatius tahu akan hal ini, oleh karena itu ia berani membandingkan dirinya sendiri dengan Allah, Bapa. Rasul Paulus telah melakukan hal yang lebih kurang sama, “Itulah sebabnya aku Sujud kepada Bapa, yang dari padaNya semua martabat bapawi yang di surga dan di bumi menerima namanya” (Ef 3:14-15)
Kata Yunani yang kadang-kadang diterjemahkan “kebapaan” dan kadang-kadang diterjemahkan “keluarga” adalah patria, dalam bahasa Latin paternitas; dari sini kita memperoleh kata Inggris paternity (=kebapaan).

Part IV:

Dalam menelaah surat-surat St. Ignatius, pakar liturgi Inggris Gregory Dix menulis: “Kalau uskup memiliki fungsi perwakilan yang khas maka ia harus menjadi seperti ‘bapa dalam keluarga’ Allah… Ini dapat ditemukan dalam frasa ‘bapa di dalam Allah’ yang masih tetap bertahan: artinya, uskup duduk di tahta sebagai ‘gambar Allah’ dan ‘citra Bapa’.
(Gregory Dix, The Shape of the Liturgy,30)

Dalam Gereja awal, uskup mengamalkan peran mengajarnya sambil duduk pada kathedra-nya (pada tahtanya), tetapi ia mengamalkan peran imaminya sambil berdiri pada altar. Kedua peran ini adalah peran bapawi, dan liturgi sendiri yang memuncak dalam tindakan bapawi ilahi yang tertinggi, yang digenapi oleh uskup.

Rubik tertua untuk komuni kudus yang diambil dari Tradition Apostolica (Tradisi Rasuli) St. Hippolytus (215) berbunyi: Apabila uskup memecahkan roti, waktu membagikan satu potongan kepada setiap orang, hendaknya ia berkata “Roti Surga dalam Kristus Yesus”
(St. Hippolytus, Traditio Apostolica, no. 23.5)

Kegiatannya membagikan komuni adalah suatu gambaran dari tindakan Bapa mengutus Sang Putra, seperti dikatakan Yesus kepada jemaat yang berhimpun di sinagoga di Kapernaum, “BapaKu yang memberikan kepadamu roti yang benar dari Surga” (Yoh 6:32)

Dan apakah artinya cathedra? Apakah artinya tahta uskup yang mengungkapkan jabatannya? Dix menjawab, “ Sungguh, seperti diungkapkan oleh Kitab Wahyu – tahta uskup itu adalah tahta Allah dan tahta Anak Domba” (Why 22:3)

Disini, duduk di cathedra berarti “duduk di tahta Allah” dan dari situlah uskup memimpin-dari tahta Allah, sebagai gambaran khas dari Allah. Dalam liturg di katedral-baik pada masa ini maupun jaman para rasul- surga turun ke bumi. Ini adalah suatu kenyataan yang memesona.

Kita menemukan ungkapan ini dimaklumkan oleh Gereja dalam surat-surat perpisahan St. Ignatius dari Anthiokia sebagaimana dikutip dalam Katekismus Gereja Katholik (KGK) 1993:

“Liturgi adalah karya paripurna Kristus, Kepala dan Tubuh. Secara terus-menerus, Imam Agung kita merayakannya dalam liturgi surgawi bersama dengan Bunda Allah yang kudus, para rasul, semua orang kudus dan semua manusia yang telah masuk ke dalam Kerajaan Surga” – KGK #1187

“Bahkan mereka yang kini merayakan liturgi tanpa tanda-tanda sudah berada di dalam liturgi surgawi; di sana perayaan sungguh-sungguh merupakan persekutuan dan pesta.” – KGK #1136)

*FIK

Ulasan yang sangat baik, sekedar tambahan bahwa suksesi Apostolik mempunyai dasar biblis yaitu St Matias.

Keperawanan Maria

Pernah terbersit dalam benak saya 'kenapa Keperawanan maria yang sudah terjadi berabad2 yang lalu masih bisa di ubah2, sekarang menjadi tidak perawan padahal sampai abad ke 16 masih perawan'..? begitu pula dengan keberatan2 yang lain dapat di rubah sesuai keinginan si penafsir Alkitab..
Keberatan akan keperawanan abadi bunda maria mulai dipertentangkan pada saat itu (Helvidus), dan muncul lagi pada abad ke-16 seiring bergejolaknya gerakan reformasi. Semua keberatan2 yang Helvidus kemukakan sesungguhnya tidak mendasar dan itu sudah dijawab tuntas oleh St. Jerome (i.e. seorang teolog Kitab Suci mumpuni pada jamannya).


seperti apa keberatan yang diulang2 tsb sampai hari ini :
Mat 13:55
Helvidus : mempunyai kesimpulan bahwa maria mempunyai anak selain Yesus, karena dalam ayat Matt 13:55, Mrk 6:3 menyebutkan kata 'Saudara/adelphos'-nya Yesus.

St. Jerome menjelaskan bahwa kata 'Saudara/adelphos'-nya sama sekali tidak dapat membenarkan bahwa maria mempunyai anak selain Yesus, Matt 13:55, dan Markus 6:3 menyebutkan 'Saudara/adelphos'-nya karena keterbatasan tata bahasa 'Ibrani kuno' yang digunakan oleh pada Jaman Yesus yang tidak mengenal kata sepupu hal ini dapat dilihat dari Kej 14:14 dimana tertulis Lot sbg 'Saudara/adelphos' Abraham. 

LXX Gen 14:14 ἀκούσας δὲ Αβραμ ὅτι ᾐχμαλώτευται Λωτ ὁ ἀδελφὸς (adelphos) αὐτοῦ ἠρίθμησεν τοὺς ἰδίους οἰκογενεῖς αὐτοῦ τριακοσίους δέκα καὶ ὀκτώ καὶ κατεδίωξεν ὀπίσω αὐτῶν ἕως Δαν
Jadi keberatan Helvidus yang menyatakan karena Matt 13:55 menyebutkan kata 'saudara/adelphos' utk membenarkan maria mempunyai anak selain Yesus adalah tidak mendasar..!

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Lukas 2:7 "dan ia melahirkan seorang anak laki-laki, anaknya yang "sulung", lalu dibungkusnya dengan lampin dan dibaringkannya di dalam palungan, karena tidak ada tempat bagi mereka di rumah penginapan."
Helvidus mempunyai kesimpulan bahwa maria mempunyai anak selain Yesus, karena dalam ayat Luk 2:7 menyebutkan kata 'Sulung'.

St. Jerome menjelaskan bahwa kata 'Sulung' sama sekali tidak dapat membenarkan bahwa Yesus sbg anak tertua sehingga disimpulkan Yesus mempunyai adik2 dari ibu yang sama (i.e. Maria), 'Sulung' adalah anak pembuka rahim sang ibu tidak perduli si anak punya adik atau tidak anak tsb tetaplah anak sulung..
Exodus 13:2 [KJV] Sanctify unto me all the firstborn, whatsoever openeth the womb among the children of Israel, [both] of man and of beast: it [is] mine.

'Sulung' juga dapat diartikan hak istimewa yang melekat pada Yesus sebagai pewaris tahta/hak istimewa Daud dimana Yesus dilahirkan oleh seorang perawan yang didalamnya mengalir darah Daud (i.e. Maria)..
Jadi keberatan Helvidus yang menyatakan karena Lukas 2:7 menyebutkan kata 'Sulung' utk membenarkan Yesus mempunyai adik2 dari rahim yang sama adalah keberatan yang tidak mendasar, karena anak pertama tsb mau punya adik kandung atau tidak dia tetaplah anak pembuka rahim ibu-nya..!

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Mat 1:24-25: Sesudah bangun dari tidurnya, Yusuf berbuat seperti yang diperintahkan malaikat Tuhan itu kepadanya. Ia mengambil Maria sebagai isterinya, tetapi tidak bersetubuh dengan diasampai ia melahirkan anaknya laki-laki dan Yusuf menamakan Dia Yesus.
Helvidus menitikberatkan pada kata "sampai" sehingga disimpulkan bahwa setelah melahirkan maka Yusuf dan Maria melakukan persetubuhan.

alasan yang terkesan memaksa ini dengan mudahnya di patahkan oleh St. Jerome yang menjelaskan bahwa Alkitab menjelaskan kata "sampai" tidak berarti bhw kejadian 'sampai' satu titik tertentu maka setelah itu terjadi kebalikannya..

• Matius 28:20 " ….Dan ketahuilah, Aku menyertai kamu senantiasa sampai kepada akhir zaman." => tentu tidak ada seorang kristen pun yang mengatakan bahwa setelah akhir jaman maka Yesus tidak menyertai murid2-Nya..!

• 1 Kor 15:25 "Karena Ia harus memegang pemerintahan sebagai Raja sampai Allah meletakkan semua musuh-Nya di bawah kaki-Nya." => tentu tidak ada seorang kristen pun yang mengatakan bahwa setelah Bapa meletakan semua musuh-Nya di bawah kaki Yesus maka Yesus tidak lagi menjadi Raja..!

Jadi keberatan Helvidus akan keperawanan Maria karena Matius 1:25 menyebutkan kata 'Sampai' utk membenarkan bahwa Yusuf melakukan hubungan badan dengan Maria setelah kelahiran Yesus adalah keberatan yang tidak mendasar, karena Alkitab tidak menyatakan bahwa setelah "titik sampai tersebut" maka terjadi kebalikannya..!

*) Note
Matt 1:25 "καὶ οὐκ ἐγίνωσκεν αὐτὴν ἕως οὗ ἔτεκεν υἱόν: καὶ ἐκάλεσεν τὸ ὄνομα αὐτοῦ Ἰησοῦν."
Dalam terjemaan LAI kata ἐγίνωσκεν [ginosko] di terjemahkan sbg 'bersetubuh' padahal dalam terjemahan inggrisnya diterjemahkan sbg 'know,knew' Matt 1:25 "and knew her not till she had brought forth a son, and he called his name Jesus".. yang saya ingin sampaikan adalah sangat sulit mengaitkan bahwa kata dalam tata bahasa Yunani  ἐγίνωσκεν [ginosko] di kaitkan sbg hubungan suami istri..!

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Masih banyak pengajaran St. Jerome yang meluruskan pandangan Helvidus tetapi karena keterbatasan waktu maka tidak dapat dibahas satu persatu di disini.. 
ada suatu tanda tanya besar yang harus di renungkan oleh orang2 yang menolak pandangan St. Jerome ttg keperawanan abadi maria, TETAPI di sisi lain mereka setuju dgn St. Jerome yang meragukan deuterokanonika (walaupun pada akhirnya St. Jerome menerima Deuterokanonika)..  

Sekedar menambahkan, Ishak pun disebut "TUNGGAL", walaupun ada Ismael, sehingga kata "SULUNG", maupun "TUNGGAL" bukan merupakan patokan karena masalah perbendaharaan kata dan budaya bahasa dari bangsa Yahudi.

*FIK